DU  CATION 


J.  LIBERTY  TADD 


ART 

AL  MANUALTRAINING 
NATURE  STUDY 


BE  YE  TRANSFORMED  BY  THE  RENEWING  OF  THE 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

COLLEGE 


PRESENTED   BY 


William  E.  RoLerts 


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The  Natural  Rlucation  Series 


NEW  METHODS  in 
EDUCATION 

Art 

Real  Manual  Training 

Nature  Study 


Explaining  processes  whereby  hand,  eye  and  mind  are  educated  by 
means  that  conserve  vitality  and  develop  a  union  of  thought 
and  action 


By  J.  LIBERTY  _TADD 

I'lrr-lor  -f  tL<  l-uTll:  -^  h^.  l..f  lo.lujtrl*!  \U 
i}t  uiaoiul  trklnlnc  Id  tbr  Kumfto  C«lh..tl.   l.lf  h  mKmI 
Aad  of  .TTml  bUtit  Mbooli,  all  >l  I'LtUdrlfLU.  !>» 
Mnnt^r  '.rihr  Art  rliit>.  rtkrtrh  rtub  kn<l  E'liioal lookl  club 
AnJ  of  Iba  AcmJcb;  of  .N«tur»l  ScUncv*.  l>tilU4«l|>LU 


With  a  Wealth  of  Illustration 


OK.WOK  JUDD  COMPANY 

Itpbtf  B«Id,  Mam  >'•  lofh..*!   X  CUag«k  lU 

LONDON 

SAMi-boN  X^jw,  Mah!>ton  &  Co 
1899 


Entered  according-  to  the  act  of 
Congress,  in  the  year  1S9S,  by 
Orange  Judd  Company,  in  the 
office  of  the  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress, at  Washington. 


Registered  at  Stationers'  Hall, 
London^  Kngland. 


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SANTA  BAKBaka  Coi.i^ 


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To  the. . . 

Cc4USE  OF  TRUE  EDUCATION 

including 

PARENTS — who  are  so  vitally  concerned 
in  the  health,  training  and  development 
of  their  children 

SUPERVISORS  AND  TEACHERS— 
who  do  the  work  of  instruction 

SUPERINTENDENTS,  COMMITTEES 
AND  TRUSTEES  —  the  men  and 
women  of  affairs  who  direct  the  school 
system 

This  'work  is  dedicated 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


'BOOK  ONE—^trst  Principles 

Chap.    1(       IXTRODCCTIOX. 

Esthetic  training  necessary  in  education.  The  first  tools. 
The  methods  advocati-d.  Rotation  of  liranches  of  work,  flakes  the 
hand  skillful.  Influeiici'  of  beauty.  Jloral  training,  its  value.  How 
to  get  mural  culture.  Trade  teacliing  only  not  beneficial.  Discover 
capacity,  tlien  educate  it.  First  experiments.  Fundamental  meth- 
ods. Educators,  scientists,  doctors  and  jiarc^nt.s  express  liearty  good 
will.  ■  3-10 

Cliap.  2.     Development  ok  Bent  m;  Dispositiux. 

I  ajiaeity  for  hand  skill.  Lack  of  liaiid  skill  one  cause  of  pov- 
erty. Importance  of  finding  out  the  "  bent  "  of  tlie  young.  Skill- 
fulness  beneficial  and  a  means  of  mental  expansion.  Ueal  manual 
training  a  means  f>f  finding  out  ca))a<-ily.  Xeccssily  of  an  energetic 
<lisposition.     Inspiration  by  pi'rformamx'  of  deeds.  11-15 

C'linp.  ii.     Import.^nte  oe  Coxt.\<  r  \vi  i  ii   Tni\(i<   Ixstkad  <ik 

THE    SVMIIOI.S    (IK    TllIN(iS. 

Imjiortance  of  various  .sense  impressions.  Importance  of  get- 
ting idi-as  first.  Thought  fabric  built  by  variety  of  expression. 
Assimilate  facts  not  words  only.  Ki'pi'tition  and  the  force  of  habit. 
Vital  union  of  heail,  hanil,  heart.  Various  .sense  impressions  organ- 
ized into  concrete  ideas.  Drawing  a  mode  of  thought  expression. 
Book-bred  pi'ople  inilisposcd  to  action.  Importance  of  visual  mem- 
ory. Too  much  reading  divorces  ideas  from  action.  Words  studied 
at  the  exiM'iise  of  iili-a.s.  All  chanm-ls  fcu'  im)iroving  the  mind  to  be 
used.  Automatic  obedience  of  the  hand.  KIght  manual  training 
will  give  a  love  nf  nature.  lil-'J3 

C'liap.  4.     DisTixriiox    r.iTWKKx    Tin;    Tun:     ash     rAi,>.i;     in 

-MaMAI.    Tl!AlM\(i. 

DilVcrent  kinds  nf  manual  training.  Methods  that  previ'iit  real 
manual  training,  .stupid  claims  for  sloyd.  I'tilitarian  iilca  over- 
done. .S|(iyil  s<deeted  for  criticism,  ."^loyil  not  real  manual  training. 
Automatic  dexterity  desired,  ."^ome  exercisi's  consume  energy  ami 
in'<|>iratiou.  I'roiM-r  ^^(lod-working  operations.  Manual  training  a 
moile  of  thought  expri-ssion.  Ideas  the  basis  of  originality.  .Art  in 
handicraft  very  rare.  Krai  manual  training  belter  than  api>rentice- 
ship.  Mi-clianiral  training  not  hand  training.  Hand  skill  should 
precede  traile  training.  What  are  drawing  and  manual  training? 
Objections  on  account  of  cost.  Ease  of  a|>plicalion  to  large  num- 
bers.    Cost  of  elaborali-  plants  should  br  s|ieiit  on  teachers,  21-14 


VIII 


Table  of  Contents. 


Chap.  o.     Lack  of  Traintno  ix  Drawing — Its  Xecessity. 

Luck  of  real  power  of  drawing.  Lack  of  art  training  in  com- 
mon school.  Fal.se  .systems  formulated  l)y  publishing  firms.  Sew- 
ing and  cooking  not  real  manual  training.  Xecessity  of  .systematic 
training  of  the  sen.ses.  Drawing  trains  the  perceptive  faculties. 
Hand  skill  makes  intelligence.  Lisulficiency  of  old  method.  Teach- 
ers must  be  able  to  draw.  Supervisors  should  be  able  to  draw. 
Misuse  of  type  forms.  Foolish  statements  by  so-called  teachers. 
Absurdities  of  commercial  systems.  Artificial  forms,  stained  paper-s, 
etc.,  usele.ss.  The  art  part  vital.  Art  and  manual  training  teach- 
ers should  be  e.\amined.     Drill  essential  in  the  elementary  stages.  3546 

Chap.  O.     Right  and  Left  Hand  Wohk,  A>rnir>EXTi!oi:s  AVork. 

Systematic  influence.  Reasons  for  ambidextrous  work.  Not 
unreasonable  mind  building.  Abstract  work  wrong.  Old  methods 
of  education  neglect  both  hands.  47-51 

Chap.  7.     Drawing  CoRRKi.ATFn  with  Other  Stitdies. 

Correlate  the  drawing  with  other  school  work.  Bad  use  of  art 
work  in  schools.  Compels  love  of  nature.  The  beginning  of  wis- 
dom. Knowledge  of  tilings  of  first  importance  in  education.  Good 
pictures  improve  taste.  Futility  of  present  methods.  Drawing  a 
mode  of  thought  expression.  Meissonier.  Growtli  of  ideas.  Ideas 
must  be  locked  into  the  mind.  52-57 

Chap.  8.     Xatiue  Sti'dies — Right  ^Iethods. 

Looking  at  tilings  not  enough.  Familiarity  not  knowledge. 
Impressions  must  be  repeated  systematically.  Let  study  have  perma- 
nent results.  We  must  appreciate  the  beauty  of  nature.  Permanent 
organic  impressions  must  be  made.  Effect  on  health  of  improper 
methods.  Beauty  and  inystery  of  common,  things.  Divine  energy 
in  matter.  Improved  methods  of  study  needed.  Universal  use  of 
new  modes  of  expression.  58-64 

BOOK   TWO  'Manual-Training  Drawing 

Chap.  1.     Considerations  in  M.\nu.\l  Tr.\ining  Dk.\wing. 

The  two  kinds  of  drawing.     Paper.     Pencils.  65-74 

Chap.  2.     Elfment.^hy  Drill  Forms. 

To  get  automatic  facility.  The  first  exercise  is  the  circle. 
Straight  lines.  'J'he  double  loo]i.  -Application  of  the  loop.  Reason 
for  these  movements.     The  spiral.     ^lodeling  and  carving.  75-86 

Cliap.  3.     Elementary  I'nits. 

Simple  leaf  forms.  The  natural  method.  Complex  leaf  forms. 
These  exercises  are  for  discipline.  Conventional  forms.  Units  of 
design  based  on  the  spiral.  The  crocket.  On  tli  e  elements  of 
design.     Comliinations  of  units.     Leading  lines.  87-100 

Chap.  4.     CoMHiNATioNS  OF  Units  and  Styles. 

The  antlieinion.  Combinations  of  the  anthemion.  Complex 
leaf  forms.  Bud  forms.  .Vnother  beautiful  series  of  leaves.  The 
Moorish  units.  101-120 

Chap.  5.     Drill  Kok.ms  and  Designs. 

Exercises  to  compel  accuracy.  Drill  work.  AVork  in  design. 
Color  and  brusli  work.  Blacklioard  work.  Designing  on  black- 
boards. 121-138 


Tabic  of  Contents.  ix 


Chap.  O.     DuAwixo  kuom  Likk  Fukms  and  Mkmduv  Duawi.ng. 

IVrsistence  reiiiiiivil.  Memory  (irawing.  Fisli  tonus.  Tvpiciil 
forms.  S|H'akiiig  tlirougli  the  finger  ti]>s.  Iiii|M>rlaiice  of  .simplicity. 
A  warning.  \'ariety  in  forms.  Kisli  forms  in  design.  General 
remarks.  1:59-1.")4 

Chap.  7.      DicAwiMi   1  i:o,\i    X.\iri;K   and   ki;".m   Mi.miii;v. 

Ulackboard  work.      lUrd   forms.     Color    in   birds.     Botanical 
forms.  15o-lC8 

Chap.  H.       C'o.NVKNTIDXAI.    AMI    SyMIUU.H      l-'lHtMS. 

Doliiliins  make  lieaiitiful  forms.  (irittins.  The  l>ird  form. 
Drawing  from  olijcits.  Symliolism.  Plaster  models.  Architec- 
tural models.  109-184 


BOOK  THREE-Modeling 


Chap.  1.     I.NTitoDriTiK.N.  I'l.A.N  r,  Krc. 

Only  one  way  to  know  form.  The  plant  required.  A  good 
box  for  the  clay.    "  185-192 

Chap.  2.       Kl.F.MEXTAKY    CofltSF.S    IX    .MoOKI.IXC;. 

.Manipulation  of  clay.  The  spiral.  Leaf  forms.  Circular 
forms.  Hints  to  the  teacher.  Klementary  forms.  Animal  forms. 
Other  animal  forms.     Ve»,sel  forms.  193-208 

Chap.  JJ.     MonKLixr.   Fhiit  axi>  Vk<;kta»i.k  Fohms. 

The  a|>pli'.  The  ]iear.  Hints  to  teachers.  Thehainimi.  Fruit 
tile.  Make  a  composition.  Vegetable  fonns.  The  tomato.  The 
turnip.  209-220 

Chap.  4.     MiiDELixii  (iKoMKTiuc  Forms. 

The  .s]ihere.  The  cube.  The  cylinder.  The  square  prism. 
The  cone.  "  221-228 

Chap.  .'>.     Mcii>Ki.iX(!   Koii  Grammar   (Jradks. 

I'ay  jiarticular  attention  to  fine  curves.  Build  solid  tile  for 
scrolls.  The  rosette  form.  Position  of  tools.  The  leaf  units.  The 
Moresque  form.  The  scroll  ami  crocket.  Combination  of  scrolls 
and  leartets.  The  anthemion.  The  curved  leaf.  Simple  shell 
forms.  229-240 

Chap.  O.     .MmiKi.ixi;   .\ximai.    Forms. 

Snggestiiuis.  Directions  for  modeling.  Must  do  work  to  real- 
ize its  educational  value.  247-250 

Chap.  7.     Wax  Moukmnc. 

Cost  and  care  of  wax.  Drawing  and  lining  in  design.  Hough 
texture  wood  l>cst.     Modeling  animal  forms.  257-200 

"BOOK  FOUR-  Wood  Carving 

Cha|i.  1.     Tools  for  Wooh  Carvix)!:  Dksi<;x  in  Wood. 

'I'he  tools  re<|uired.  Age  at  which  to  learn.  Tho  wood  to  use. 
Designing  the  form  to  carve.     As  to  graded  work.  2(il-27t> 

Chap.  2.     IxsTRrcTioxs  for  Ki.kmkxtaicv  Carvixo. 

How  to  carve.  Carving  the  raised  surface.  I'ower  in  the  hand. 
Kncourage  tlie  pupil  The  value  of  carving.  Use  of  finisheil  work. 
As  a  training.      Finishing  the  carving.  271-282 


Table  of  GDntcnts. 


Clmp.  3.     Cauvixg  thk  Elf.mkxtary  I'.mts  of  Design. 

The  scroll.     The  .simiile  leaf.     The  spiral  with  crockets.     The 
antliemion.      Ko.settes.     Square   rosettes.      Fluted  forms.      Conven- 


tionalized forms  for  carving. 


283-290 


Chap.  4.     Carving  ox  FrRxiTriiK  and  Otiiku  Advanced  AVouk. 

Carving  in  relief  on  curved  surfaces.     Borders  and  moldings. 
Suitable  forms  for  carving.     Carving  in  tlie  round.  291-302 


'BOOK  FIVE— Various  Applications 

Chap.    1.       CoNSTKlfTIOX       IN      AVoODWOIJK      AND      MECHANICAL 

Drawing. 

Radical  feature  of  this  method.  Machine-sliop  practice  has  its 
place.  Large  economy  in  equipment.  Use  of  head  work.  Rotation 
of  work.  Objects  of  instruction.  Put  art  first.  Good  teacher  bet- 
ter than  good  tools.  Jlechanical-drawing  course  includes  -what. 
Architecture.  Blackboard  work.  The  simpler  exercises.  Advanced 
work.  Woodworking  course  and  what  it  includes.  Tools  for  wood- 
working department.  Mechanical-drawing  course  and  equipment. 
Exercises  in  metal  work.  305-337 

Chap.  2.     Correlation  of  Drawing  with  Other  Studies. 

Trouble  with  old  drawing  methods.  Correlation  of  art  meth- 
ods— with  language  study,  zoology,  nature  study,  biology,  botany, 
elementary  mineralogy,  entomology,  chemistry,  etc.  339-357 

Chap.  3.     Art  and  Manc-vl  Training  in  Special  Schools. 

Xight  schools,  importance  of  occupation,  plant,  materials  and 
teachers  required.     Vacation  schools.    Normal  and  summer  schools.         359-3S3 

Chap.  4.     Other  Uses  for  Art.  Manual  Tk.\ixing  and  Na- 
ture Study. 

Decorating  the  school  room.  For  liackward  pupils.  For  the 
feeble-miiuled  and  insane.  Reformatories  and  truant  schools.  Mis- 
cellaneous applications.  Repousse  and  hammered  work.  For  par- 
ents. 385-397 

Chap.  3.     Suggestions  for  .\rt  Students. 

A  great  field  for  teachers.  Preparing  for  fine  art  work.  Fit- 
ting for  the  minor  arts  also.  Charcoal  drawing.  Painting  in  water 
color  from  casts.     Life  work.     Summer  art  work.  399-417 

Miscellaneous 

Author's     acknowledgments.     Index.     Lisi  ot     illustrations. 
The  publishers'  word.  418-424 


Cast  Drawing'  ^fadc  by  Girl  of  Ten  Years  of  Age 
Fine  work  in  charroal  can  be  made  by  pupils  in  tlic  schools  from  these  models,  if  they  have  had 
proper  instruction  in  elemcnt:iry  manual-truinin^  drawing.    This  drawing  is  very  much  reduced,  but 
shows  free  rendering  and  g^rasp  ofinagnitudes  instead  of  detail. 


PREFACE 


IT  IS  XOW  OVER  TWENTY  YEARS  since  the  author  made  his 
first  experiment  in  educational  manual  training  and  established 
his  first  classes.  The  present  methods  are  the  results  of  this  ex- 
perience. Nothing  was  taken  for  granted,  anil  all  processes  had 
to  stand  the  test  of  experience  and  application  to  large  numbers  of 
pupils.  The  first  trials  were  made  with  private  pupils,  the  author  be- 
ing employed  by  the  late  Dr.  Thomas  S.  Kirkbride,  the  physician-in- 
chicf  of  the  Pennsylvania  hosi)ital  for  the  insane,  to  teach  his  own 
children  and  some  of  the  i)atients  of  the  hospital.  The  first  direction 
and  impulse  to  the  work  were  inspired  by  his  generous  advice  and 
instruction 

The  Public  School  of  Industrial  .\rt.  established  at  Philadelpliia  in 
1880  by  Charles  G.  Lelan<l.  of  which  the  author  was  chief  instructor" 
from  its  inception  and  has  been  director  since  1884,  first  gave  oppor- 
tunity for  application  of  his  methods  of  instruction  to  large  numbers. 


xii  Preface 

Since  then  numerous  institutions,  public  and  private,  liave  enabled  him 
to  develop  a  method  that  has  proven  to  be  founded  on  correct  prin- 
ciples, and  is  now  widely  acknowledged  to  be  successful. 

This  book  is  primarily  a  protest  against  present  methods  of  educa- 
tion. The  old  education  is  dependent  too  much  upon  books.  Books 
are  mere  aids — tliey  are  not  the  original  sources  of  education  or  infor- 
mation, l)ut  artificial  and  second-hand  ones.  Nature  and  experience 
are  the  best  teachers,  and  by  immediate  acquaintance  with  and  direct 
exercise  upon  the  myriad  forms  of  life  we  get  the  best  training.  Chil- 
dren are  told  too  much;  they  do  not  work  out  truths  for  themselves. 
Reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  are  made  main  facts  instead  of  inci- 
dentals of  education.  Some  pupils  become  exceptionally  proficient  in 
these  branches  at  the  expense  of  essentialities.  My  endeavor  will  be 
to  show  that  much  scliool  work  shotdd  and  can  be  carried  oii  to  better 
advantage  as  regards  pupils,  teachers,  economy  and  environment  by 
the  method  here  set  forth  than  by  the  ordinary  system. 

The  love  of  nature  is  an  universal  instinct,  and  should  be  sedu- 
lously cultivated.  Children  love  nature  instinctively.  Nature  speaks 
as  loud  to-day  as  ever,  and  all  should  hear  her  voice.  As  Emerson 
says,  we  must  "bend  to  the  persuasion  which  is  flowing  to  us  from 
every  object  in  nature,  entreating  us  to  be  its  tongue  to  the  heart  of 
man."  It  is  natural  for  children  at  certain  ages,  by  contact  with  nature 
in  certain  ways,  to  assimilate  information  unconsciously  from  the 
actual  things.  Experiments  with  children  prove  conclusively  that 
these  nascent  periods  arc  well  marked  and  should  never  be  missed,  or 
the  opportunity  is  gone  forever.  The  character  changes  as  the  child 
grows,  and  its  disposition  should  be  formed. 

We  should  develop  a  disposition  disposed  to  energetic  action  or 
work,  in  response  to  stinuilatiug  thought — a  disposition  that  hungers 
and  thirsts  for  right  action,  according  to  environment.  Too  often  mere 
head-learning  creates  a  wish  or  desire  for  good,  without  there  being 
sufficient  impulse  in  the  organism  to  prompt  the  energetic  action  re- 
,  quired  to  achieve  it.  For  this  purpose  energy  must  be  stored  in  the 
organism,  and  conserved  by  a  training  in  action  and  deeds,  until  the 
working  out  of  thoughts  in  deeds  grows  into  a  habit.  To  consume 
and  waste  the  vital  energy  by  beginning  too  early  with  abstract  tasks 


Preface  xiii 

and  various  forms  of  thouglit  studies,  is  as  needless  as  it  is  common. 
Too  often  I  find  the  mind  to  be  enfeebled,  the  memory  weakened,  the 
vitality  abused  and  consumed,  by  studies  meant  to  strengthen:  instead 
of  methods  being  employed  that  would  conserve  and  add  to  vitality, 
at  the  same  time  that  the  mind,  the  memory,  the  judgment  and  the 
imagination  are  being  improved. 

In  common  with  this  improvement  of  the  mental  and  physical 
being,  there  should  be  a  development  of  the  emotional  being  through 
the  feelings — a  love  of  action,  a  training  of  hand  and  eye  to  obey  the 
min<l  and  execute  its  orders,  that  fit  both  head  and  hand,  heart  and 
will,  to  cope  with  the  problems  of  life. 

Nothing  gives  greater  dignity  to  man  than  a  complete  realization 
of  the  power  of  being  able  to  do.  Xo  joy  is  greater  or  more  lasting 
than  that  received  by  doing  well  with  the  complete  being, — brain,  eye, 
hands,  will,  and  judgment, — all  tools,  (lod-given  tools,  to  be  trained 
and  used. 

Heretofore  nnich  of  the  best  energy  of  the  country  has  been 
devoted  to  trade  activities,  to  material  welfare;  but  in  the  process  of 
evolution,  of  differentiation  of  institutions,  other  ideas  in  education 
must  prevail,  and  science  and  art  be  more  fully  considered.  Material 
purposes  so  far  have  progressed  at  the  expense  of  art,  and  industrial 
supremacy  threatens  the  sacrifice  of  those  esthetic  elemeiUs  that  do 
so  much  to  make  life  worth  living.  Machinery  has  largely  abolished 
handicraft.  The  artist  artisan  is  the  rare  exception,  whereas  he  should 
be  the  rule.  The  cause  of  education  has  been  injured  by  a  narrow 
commercialism  that  sought  immediate  gains  at  the  cost  of  permanent 
advantage.  The  tendency  has  been  to  degrade  labor  and  to  exalt 
wealth — to  restrict  the  best  development  of  the  human  organism 
among  the  masses,  until  the  world  is  filled  with  millions  inca])acitated 
for  its  duties,  blind  to  its  joys,  wanting  the  hoi)efulness  of  self-confidt-nt 
ability,  feeble  in  jnirpose  and  unresi)onsive  to  spiritual  inlluence. 

Of  late  years  a  revolt  against  all  this  is  growing  among  the  jieoplc, 
based  on  both  practical  and  ethical  grounds.  The  wiser  folk  are  begin-^  ' 
ning  to  realize  that  one  object  f)f  education  should  be  to  (|ualify  ihti 
individual  to  enjoy  life  fully  in  whatever  environment  he  may  be  castj 
while  at  the  same  time  developing  a  capacity  to  achieve  material  sue- 


xiv  Preface 

cess.  Such  capacity  depends  in  part  upon  discovering  at  an  early  age 
one's  best  bent  or  peculiar  fitness  for  some  special  vocation,  and  then 
training  for  this  purpose  not  only  the  mind,  but  also  the  hand  and  the 
eye,_indecd,  the  whole  organism,— and  forming  the  practical  judg- 
ment as  well  as  the  power  to  reason  theoretically.  How  few  ascertain 
their  bent  and  make  the  most  of  it  is  best  appreciated  by  the  millions 
whose  lives  are  rendered  more  or  less  unsuccessful  through  early  lack 
of  this  knowledge.  The  inability  of  book-learning  alone  to  train  the_ 
judgment  to  deal  with  practical  affairs  is  everywhere  recognized.  Its 
failure  to  develop  originality  is  also  admitted,  while  mere  book  studies 
are  also  deficient  in  training  earnestness  of  purpose  and  tenacity  of 
application. 

It  is  c(iually  apparent  that  old  methods  of  education  too  often 
impart  facts  at  the  expense  of  health.  Even  strong  children  often  wilt 
in  the  schools,  sacrificing  bodily  strength,  mental  power  and  vigor  of 
will  to  a  misconception  of  education.  For  after  all  this  effort,  many 
youths  of  both  se.\es  come  out  of  the  schools  quite  unfitted  physically 
for  life's  responsibilities,  which  they  have  subsequently  to  learn  by 
years  of  hard  experience. 

Largely  as  a  result  of  imperfect  training,  or  wrong  methods  of 
education  in  youth,  beauty  and  high  quality  of  product  are  too  com- 
monly lacking  in  mechanical  industries  and  in  the  world  of  literature 
and  the  fine  arts.  Our  people  excel  in  quantity  of  product,  but  not  int 
quality.  If  they  are  to  compete  with  the  real  art  that  characterizes  so 
much  of  the  fine  products  of  the  old  world  or  of  the  Orient,  then  the 
art  idea  must  be  made  more  prominent  in  education.  Art  instruction 
should  be  so  correlated  with  other  methods  as  to  help  in  reforming  the 
educational  errors  alluded  to.  When  this  is  ])roperly  done,  the  rising 
generations  will  reach  a  development  in  the  many  that  has  heretofore 
been  enjoyed  only  by  the  few.  Our  American  youth  will  come  out  of 
the  early  educational  process  sound  in  brain  and  body,  strong  of  pur- 
pose, positive  in  application,  trained  in  the  use  of  hand  and  eye,  with 
originality  developed  and  judgment  matured,  possessing  an  al)ility 
and  a  capacity  to  use  it  that  will  so  manifest  themselves  in  every  art 
and  industry  as  to  maintain  throughout  the  world  the  supremacy  of 
American  genius,  effort  and  products.     Success  in  these  ways  will  be 


Pteh 


And  this  means  a  building  up  of  character  and  a  recognition  of  man's 
duty  to  humanity  and  to  God,  by  which  alone  are  to  be  fostered  the 
best  citizenship,  the  largest  human  happiness  and  the  fullest  enjoyment 
of  the  marvels  of  this  wonderful  universe  in  whicii  we  live. 

Toward  this  high  purpose  the  present  work  is  a  modest  contribu- 
tion. It  suggests  new  methods  of  education,  but  only  such  as  have 
stood  the  test  of  many  years'  searching  investigation  and  practical/ 
experience.  It  aims  to  show  by  actual  results  that  art  instructionj 
real  manual  training  and  nature  study,  rightly  conducted  and  properly 
correlated  with  other  studies,  should  begin  at  a  tender  age  and  con4 
tinue  throughout  the  elementary  and  higher  stages  of  education.  This 
book  is  not  merely  a  technical  manual  of  drawing  and  design,  of 
modeling  and  carving,  of  construction  in  wood  and  metal,  or  of  the 
fine  arts,  but  is  designed  to  demonstrate  the  remarkable  educational 
power  of  these  methods  when  rightly  used,  the  economy  of  their  uni- 
versal application,  and  their  beneficial  effect  in  helping  to  qualify  the 
individual  to  make  the  most  of  himself  or  herself.  It  also  gives 
an  insight  into  the  modus  operandi  of  these  methods,  to  the  end  that 
they  may  be  more  generally  ]iracticed  by  parents  and  teachers  and  fully 
comprehended  by  school  authorities  and  people  of  affairs. 


^ 


i 


/ 


M 


Drawing  from  Life 

«n- T'^i'*'''^' *'"''"/''."'."  !■"■ '""^  y""*^''-  '■"■■'■•^ '""'=''  "='•'■"■'' in  size.  showlnfT  method  of  using  charcoal.  The  un 
Son^wo'ir^f^.'hU  i  '  ,'"?  '^''""'  r>"""^  "•"'"  ''fl'in.llinKthc  charcoal.  Many  of  our  students  are  now 
domtr«ork  of  this  O.aracterin  various  art  institutions,  and  thev  nnd  that  the  elementary  manual  trainlnsr  they  have 

Wk'hyR';i!,h^'''''''J,  J'A"'^'l-'!'"ra'i,''"'°'ir-  These  dravyiiiKS,  and  also  the  charcoal  dra^vin^s  at  the^ end  of  the 
book  hy  Rembrandt  and  Raph.aelshoud  he  studied.  Notice  should  be  taken  of  the  various  modls  of  expression  bV 
means  of  lines  and  light  and  shade.    Students  should  realize  that  m.any  ways  can  be  used.  »f  "»'""  "H 

xvi 


AN  ADDRESS 


At  the  Graduation  of    the  Teachers'  Classes  in 
Manual  Training,  Public  School  of 
Industrial  Art.  Philadelphia,  June,  1894 
By  W.  N.  Hailmann,  Ph  D.  ' 


DTRIXG  THE  WORLD'S  EXPOSITION  AT  CHICAGO, 
one  of  my  chief  delights  was  the  discovery  of  this  school.  As' 
■  lircctor  and  superintendent  of  educational  work  for  many 
}cars.  I  had  long  since  become  convinced  that  art  represents 
the  iiiphest  formulation  of  thoup:ht.  that  an  education  which  does  not 
lead  to  art  is  at  Ijest  of  little  value  and  is  very  likely  to  lead  to  some 
one-sidedness,  which  of  necessity  bring;?  hindrance  or  destruction,  or 
to  some  form  of  egoistic  self-conceit,  which  labors  to  hide  inner  insuf- 
ficiencies under  the  cloak  of  outer  pretensions  or  mannerisms. 

This  conviction  was  strengthened  by  the  popular  demand  for 
manual  and  industrial  training  which  two  decades  ago  came  to  the 
school  with  irresistible  force,  resting  firmly  upon  the  dawning  recogni- 
tion of  the  imminent  needs  of  the  human  mind  and  of  the  pressing 
demands  of  the  social  organism  with  reference  to  these  things. 

The  school  anil  the  people  whom  the  school  is  supposed  to  serve 


•One  of  the  best  known  e«lucatiun:il  ;iuthorilies,  of  ionif  and  varied  experience.  From  1S57  to 
1S65,  he  waK  profesxor  of  natural  scie^ce^,  I.nuii^ville,  Kv.,  liii;h  BchooU;  1S65-7J,  director  German. 
Entflish  academy,  I^iiiiliville,  Ky. ;  1^7,^-75,  director  Cverman-Kni^MKh  academy,  Milwaukee,  Wii»., 
which  l>ecanie  ihrnugh  hit  efforts  the  (ierinan-.Xineriran  teachers*  ^cminarv,  the  direction  of  which  he 
declined.  From  1S75  10  iSS_(  he  conducted  (jointly  with  Mrs.  Hailmann)  a  Iraininif  ^chool  for  kinder, 
(fartners,  at  Milwaukee  until  1S7S,  anti  at  Detroit  from  '7SA_;.  From  l^Sl^j^,  Dr.  Hailmann  waft  su|K-r 
intcndent  of  achfiols  at  I^apiirtc,  Ind.;  |S<>|.,>'^,  national  Kuperintendent  of  Indian  Kchool-, 
WafrhioKton,  D.  C. ;  at  preiMrnt,  nuperintendent  of  puMic  inktruclion,  I>aytt>n,  O.  Amontc  hiii  hookn 
and  wrilinifH  are  the  following  :  1866,  A  System  of  <*hjectivc  Teachinic;  1S70,  Hlfttory  of  Peda|{0|fy; 
187J,  Kinderijarten  Culture  for  Home  and  School;  1W5,  Application  of  l*ftycholo);y  to  I'eachinjf, 
(prize  chsay,  -Vmerican  institute  r>f  in<,truclinn) ;  1SS7,  Primar\'  Mcthodii;  iSyj,  Fmeherw  Kducaliim 
of  Man,  International  *erie».  Fr»»m  |S70-S_|  he  wa«  editor  ["  Krzichun|f»blaetler",  a  tfcrmau 
educational  journal;  1^77.^3,  editor  New  Education  anil  Kinderffurten  Meftitenicer;  1SS3-.H5,  ai^Kociato 
editor  Primary  Teacher.  A  number  of  report*  ami  paper*  In  National  Council  of  Education,  and 
National  Kilur.itiniial   Avvi,,  i.il  i..n. 

XVll 


xviii  An  Address 

had  come  to  recognize  with  growing  clearness  the  facts  that  an  educa- 
tion which  merely  fills  the  memory  with  traditional  formulas  and 
conventionalities  is  doing  but  a  small  share  of  its  allotted  work,  that 
thought  does  not  end  in  itself,  that  volition  is  a  phase  of  intelligence, 
that  action  is  the  outward  assertion  of  insight,  that  without  the  hand 
man  is  powerless  and  must  sink  back  into  a  hopeless  pessimism  which 
tends  to  animality,  that  in  art  man  formulates  his  most  delicate  and 
far-reaching  abstractions.  They  had  come  to  recognize  the  fact  that 
man  is  truly  educated  only  in  the  measure  in  which  he  has  learned  to 
place  himself,  in  his  thought  and  feelings,  into  deliberate,  active, 
helpful  relation  with  the  life  of  some  group  of  mankind  in  all  its 
struggles  and  strivings,  in  its  joys  and  sorrows,  in  its  conquests  and 
achievements. 

A  mental  act  is  incomplete  unless  through  its  feelings  and 
thinkings  and  willings  it  reaches  the  corresponding  deed.  The  hand  is 
the  projected  brain,  through  which  the  directing  thought  achieves  the 
heart  purposes  of  man.  The  hand  mediates  inwardly  and  outwardly 
between  man  and  his  environment,  makes  him  and  his  environment 
one,  stimulates  and  establishes  thought,  awakens  brotherly  love  and 
realizes  the  aspirations  of  brotherly  love. 

The  recognition  of  these  facts  made  the  traditional  school  appear 
very  inadequate  to  its  purpose;  and  efforts,  wise  and  otherwise,  were 
made  by  conscientious  and  thoughtful  persons  to  remedy  the  defect. 
Alanual  and  industrial  training  and  art  instruction  became  the  order 
of  the  day,  and  indeed  every  effort  in  this  direction  deserves  even 
to-day  grateful  acknowledgment,  in  so  far  as  it  meant  to  serve  the 
new  light  and  was  not  undertaken  by  commercial  adventurers  with  a 
view  of  exploiting  a  new  demand. 

A  serious  error,  however,  was  made  in  the  introduction  of 
manual  training  and  art-work  as  new  subjects  of  instruction  in 
addition  to  those  already  in  vogue.  In  doing  this  the  school  rather 
emphasized  the  divorce  between  the  head  and  the  hand.  Instead  of 
relieving  the  existing  intellectual  one-sidedness,  it  added  a  new  manual 
one-sidedncss,  thus  doubling  the  wrong. 

To  this  was  added  another  error.     The  new  subjects  of  manual 
f\  and  art  training  were  taught  in  the  same  traditional  methods  current 


An  Address  xbt 

with  other  subjects  of  instruction.  The  aim  was  less  to  stimulate  pur- 
pose on  the  pupil's  part  and  to  secure  to  him  the  inspiring  experience 
which  the  achievement  of  spontaneous  purpose  brings,  but  rather  to 
transmit  to  him  a  certain  imitativi'  cmitrol  of  j)uri)osc';  and  achieve- 
ments of  the  past. 

Thus,  while  it  gave  the  learner  certain  conventional  phases  of  | 
manual  skill  and  placed  him  in  possession  of  certain  so-called  rules  of 
art,  it  failed  to  open  in  his  soul  and  to  subject  to  his  conscious  control 
the  fountains  that  keep  fresh  the  fervors  of  exploration  and  invention. 
of  productive  and  creative  imagination.  Thus,  it  happened  tliat  in 
many  instances  manual  and  art  training  fell  into  disrepute,  and  that 
they  were  derided  as  failures  even  by  educators  whom  the  peojile  had 
learned  justly  to  esteem  as  among  the  most  thoughtful. 

Had  those  who  introduced  the  new  work  been  familiar  with  Froe- 
bel's  educational  prophecy,  the  result  would  have  been  different.    This 
educational  genius,  whose  value  is  just  beginning  to  be  recognizeil, 
had  indicated  the  true  way  clearly  enough.    In  order  to  render  educa- 
tion a  true  preparation  for  harmonious  full-life  and  in  order  co  secure 
to  the  hand   and    to  art  tluir   legitimate  share  in  this,  shielding   man 
equally  against  over-credulous  optimisms  and  nihilistic   pessimisms, 
he  would    introduce  manual    and  art  training  not  as  new  subjects  of  / 
instruction,  would    not  add    to  the  already  excessive    burden    of  the 
school,  but  make  this  burden  light  by  assigning  to  the  hand  and  to  art 
their  ])ro])cr    ])lace  in  each    subject,  transforming    th.ii  which  was  a( 
burden  into  a  self-sustaining,  self-stimulating  work,  changing  it  from 
a  mechanical  dead-weight  into  natural  sustenance  of  the  growing  or4    / 
ganism  in  which  manual  activity  is  a  normal  concomitant  of  life  and 
art  the  normal  choicest  blossom  ancl  fruit.  i 

In  my  own  uninstructed  and  halting  fashion,  I  had  labored  for  a 
number  of  years  towards  this  aim.  You  may,  therefore,  understand 
the  joy  that  came  to  me  when  at  Chicago  I  caught  the  first  glimpse  of 
the  work  of  this  school.  1  had  ])assed  from  school  to  school;  every- 
where I  had  found  the  same  stereotyped  conventionalism,  everywhere! 
the  same  unreasoning  endeavor  to  subjectart  (which  is  intensest  and' 
freest  life)  to  arbitrary  formalisms,  everywhere  the  pupil's  gaze  turned' 
to  so-called  rules  and  legitimacies,  instead  of  searching  out  the  laws 


XX  An  Address 

tliat  live  in  his  own  soul,  everywhere  the  same  ruthless  efforts  to  tie 
the  pupil's  hand  with  arbitrary  mannerisms,  instead  of  liberating  con- 
ditions that  might  enable  his  ideas  and  ideals  to  live  themselves  forth 
upon  some  recording  surface  or  into  some  plastic  material.     From 
booth  to  booth  I  had  gone  and  had  seen  the  walls  plastered  over  with 
weak  imitations  of  the  thoughts  or  no-thoughts  of  some  system-maker 
,i  until  my  soul  grew  sick  with  the  musty  odors  of  darkness  and  decay, 
iwhen  at  last  the  display  of  the  work  of   this    school    burst  upon  my 
j  weariness. 

It  came  to  me  as  a  reproach  and  a  prophecy, — a  reproach  for  my 
despondency,  a  prophecy  of  a  new  eureka.  Here  there  was  not  a  stroke 
of  work  that  did  not  embody  a  complete  thought  clearly  elaborated  in 
the  learner's  mind.  Every  achievement  rested  upon  the  pupil's) 
personal  experience  and  seemed  consciously  related  to  some  sponta-jj 
neous  purpose  that  had  had  its  birth  and  growth  in  the  pupil's  heart.;  ■ 
In  the  light  of  their  handiwork  the  students  had  explored  the  contents 
of  their  own  minds,  judging  at  every  step  the  value  of  their  work 
by  criteria  grown  on  the  soil  of  their  own  experience  and  lifted  into 
consciousness  by  their  own  efforts.  At  every  step  I  saw  them  intently 
and  yet  without  strain  gaining  at  the  same  time  clearer  comprehension 
of  the  object  of  their  work  and  greater  confidence  in  their  powers  of 
accurate,  lucid  self-expression.  And  this  seemed  to  be  managed  so 
adroitly  by  the  school,  and  with  such  clear-visioned  consistencv  and 
unfailing  respect  for  the  learner's  thought,  that  weariness  of  spirit  and 
the  rebellious  desire  to  be  let  alone,  so  common  in  the  traditional 
school,  could  not  enter  here.  ' 

In  the  ordinary  school,  which  labors  to  force  all  minds  into  the 
same  arbitrary  molds  of  traditional  mediocrity,  the  teacher  is  forever 
dictating,  directing,  holding  up  effete  patterns,  and  obsolete  ideals  that 
have  no  vital  meaning  in  the  life  of  the  child,  forever  reinforcing  his 
efforts  with  books  and  charts,  systems  and  formulas,  recipes  and 
dogmas,  never  affording  the  learner  an  opportunity  to  become 
accjuainted  with  himself  and  to  gain  the  conviction  that  there  is  within 
him  a  life  teeming  with  possibilities  far  beyond  the  reminiscences  of 
past  and  the  incongruities  of  foreign  achievements. 

In  this  school  as  I  saw  it  at  the  exposition  this  was  not  the  case. 


An  Address  xxi 

I  Here  the  pupil  seemed  to  lead.  He  fairly  felt  himself  growing.  Xew 
revelations  of  his  power  came  to  him  at  every  turn.  He  lived  himself 
into  confidence  in  his  own  power  to  think  and  to  express  thought. 
Whereas  the  ordinary  traditional  school  is  ever  busy  in  dryest 
exercises  to  establish  detached  automatisms  as  to  how  to  do  this  and 
how  to  do  that,  directing  the  child's  chief  attention  to  the  mechanism 
of  himself;  the  automatisms  of  the  required  work  were  here  so  closely 
tied  up  with  the  pupil's  thought  and  purpose  that  they  took  care  of 
themselves,  growing  with  the  growth  of  thought  and  purpose,  leaving 
the  child  free  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  these  most  important  things. 
Elsewhere,  I  had  seen  the  child  weighted  down  with  cvibes  and 
balls,  witii  cylinders  and  cones?,  w  ith  lines  straight  and  curved,  parallel 
and  diverging,  loading  himself  with  wearisome  definitions  of  these 
things  or  investing  them  with  an  unhealthy  mysticism  in  accordance 
with  a  sadly  perverted  reading  of  I-Voebel's  thought;  here  I  found 
practical  comprehension  and  free  control  of  these  things,  attained 
without  weariness  and  suppressed  sorrow,  a  loving  application  of 
Froebel's  living  thought;  cubes  and  cylinders,  squares  and  circles  be- 
coming familiar  friends  through  the  service  they  gave  in  the  expression  ! 
of  thought  and  in  the  achievement  of  purpose.  Here  I  saw  the  so-  ', 
called  principles  of  parallelism  and  perpendicularity,  of  radiation  and 
balance,  of  circle  and  involute,  of  perspective  and  shadow,  discovered 
by  the  children  in  the  needs  of  their  own  souls,  clearly  put  forth  and 
thoughtfully  applied  in  spontaneous  work,  shining  in  the  lucidity  of 
native,  not  of  borrowed,  light.  Here  I  saw  an  art  rooted  deejily  in  the 
child's  own  continuously  growing  ex])erience,  vitally  connected  with 
his  every  interest  and  line  of  study,  fed  by  every  other  subject  of  in- 
struction and  establishing  in  the  child's  organic  self  the  income  of  all 
these  subjects;  an  art  which  is  capable  of  enhancing  the  utilities  of 
life  by  clothing  them  in  beauty,  cajiable  of  rendering  the  materialities 
of  life  lucid  with  their  recognized  latent  spiritualities,  capable  of  weav- 
ing into  the  now  and  here  the  life-ideals  that  come  to  us  from  the  ])ast 
or  are  brought  to  us  from  afar,  not  in  servile  imitation,  but  in  free 
assimilation  and  development.  Here  1  saw  the  ])ri>mise  of  a  new 
descriptive  art,  stimulating  observation  and  discovery,  inviting  to  the 


xxii  An  Address 

study  of  the  inner  reasons  of  outer  form,  revealing  tlie  deeper  laws  and 
conditions  of  our  environment. 

Here  I  saw  (although  Mr  Tadd  modestly  repudiates  this)  the 
promise  of  a  new  creative  art,  shall  I  say  of  a  truly  national  and  spe- 
cifically American  art,  in  full  accordance  with  the  subjective  needs  and 
aspirations  of  this  new  nation,  free  from  Egyptian  and  Persian  petri- 
factions, from  Japanese  trivialities,  from  French  frivolities  and  pessi- 
misms, free  from  all  that  is  extraneous  and  effete;  an  art  which  is  not 
meant  to  tickle  the  idle  and  dissolute,  but  to  sustain  the  earnest,  which 
does  not  revel  in  the  bizarre,  but  strives  to  reveal  the  unity  of  the  true 
and  the  beautiful,  of  joy  and  vigor;  an  art  which  does  not  drag  man 
into  the  bogs  of  self-indulgence,  but  lifts  him  to  the  bights  of  self- 
assertion  in  the  service  of  holiest  ideals. 

I  congratulate  this  beautiful  city  on  the  proud  distinction  of  being 
the  home  of  such  a  school.  I  congratulate  the  nation  upon  the  fact — 
significant  in  its  coincidence — that  the  City  of  Brotherly  Love,  from 
which  was  proclaimed  our  national  independence,  is  thus  generously 
preparing  to  secure  for  us  a  new  independence  in  the  realms  of  art. 


SINCE  writing  the  above,  I  have  had  the  privilege  of  looking  over 
advance  sheets  of  Mr.  Tadd's  book.  The  perusal  of  these  pages 
has  confirmed  me  in  the  high  esteem  in  which  I  hold  the  work  of 
this  gifted  teacher.  In  this  book  he  has  liberated  manual  and 
art  training  from  the  trammels  of  tradition  and  from  the  snares  of  com- 
mercial dilettantism.  He  has  revealed  to  us  a  manual  and  art  training 
that  rests  consistently  on  the  fundamental  immanent  instincts  of  self- 
activity,  and  that  appeals  at  every  step  to  the  highest  esthetic  aspira- 
tions of  the  unfolding  soul;  a  manual  training  that  does  not  allow  itself 
to  become  clogged  with  the  tools  and  tricks  of  shop  and  trade, 
although  it  touches  shop  and  trade  at  every  point,  but  in  a  way  that 
infuses  into  the  plainest  work  the  beauty  and  charm  of  an  esthetic  con- 
science; an  art  training  which,  far  from  overwhelming  the  pupil's 
yearnings  for  self-expression  with  the  debris  of  past  achievements, 
places  the  elements  of  past  success  at  the  pupil's  disposal  for  living 


An  Address  xziii 

appreciation  and  for  his  own  purposes  in  the  artistic  formulation  of 
ideas  and  ideals;  an  art  training  which,  instead  of  reducing  art-study 
to  a  dry  and  burdensome  recitation  process,  makes  of  it  a  stimulating 
delight,  touching  with  new  power  every  phase  of  growth,  every  im- 
pulse of  self-expression. 

Mr.  Tadd's  book  does  not  bring  us  a  new  "system."  It  does  not 
propose  to  drive  every  student  through  the  same  grooves,  leading 
jointly,  not  to  mediocrity,  hut  rather  to  indifference.  It  does  not  look 
upon  art  as  a  consignment  of  exotics,  to  be  painfully  and  tremblingly 
transplanted  in  an  inauspicious  climate.  Evidently,  the  author  respects 
the  esthetic  instincts  that  live  in  every  soul,  and  respects,  too,  the  indi- 
vidual directions  in  wiiich  these  instincts  seek  to  assert  themselves;  to 
each  individual  pupil  he  would  afford  opportunity  to  gather  strength 
and  insight,  as  well  as  stinnihis  to  rise  into  enthusiastic  mastership. 
Art,  to  him,  is  a  hardy  plant  whose  seeds  find  congenial  soil  in  every 
clime;  beauty,  to  him,  is  an  universal  harmony  that  praises  the  Creator 
in  all  created  things;  this  he  would  teach  his  pupils  to  find  in  every 
environment. 

He  seems  to  look  upon  art  neither  as  a  luxury  nor  as  a  new  indus- 
try. Esthetic  beauty  is  an  essential  element  in  the  usefulness  of  things 
which  by  this  element  become  better  adapted  to  their  purpose  and 
more  enjoyable  and  congenial  to  the  user.  Yet  in  thus  applying  art  to 
industry,  the  author  does  not  fall  into  the  error  of  reducing  art  to  the 
level  of  an  industry,  but  ever  keeps  distinct  its  divine  mission  to  lift 
man  and  humanity  to  a  fuller  appreciation  of  the  deep  harmonies  of 
inmost  being  and  purpose  that  are  revealed  to  man  in  the  form  and 
color  sympiionies  of  created  things. 

A  most  important  feature  of  the  book  is  its  adaptability  to  every 
condition  under  which  children  are  taught,  from  the  district  school  at 
the  crossing  of  tlie  roads  to  the  elaborate  school  system  of  an  opulent 
citv.  To  the  district  school  teacher  as  well  as  to  the  city  supervisor 
of  art  and  manual  training,  it  affords  suggestion  and  guidance.  In 
both  it  will  stinuilate  to  increased  activity  and  lift  into  clearer  light 
whatever  of  latent  or  developed  ability  they  may  possess.  Vhv  intelli- 
gent follow ing  of  its  teachings  will,  in  a  large  measure,  eniancii)ate  the 
one  from  the  need  of  a  special  teacher,  and  enable  the  other  to  render 


XXIV 


An  Address 


himself  more  and  more  indispcnsaljle  in  his  wider  field.     To  both  it 

will  come  as  a  helper  and  friend. 

Thus,  I  trust,  this  book  is  destined  to  clear  the  way  for  the  advent 

of  a  truly  American  art  which,  on  the  one  hand,  will  add  to  our  indu.s- 

tries  a  growing  regard  for  grace  and  beauty,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 

will  hasten  the  time  when  .\merica  shall  be  freed  from  the  bane  of  mere 

imitation  in  matters  of  art,  when  she  shall  rejoice  in  an  art  of  her  own 

which  in  architecture  and  sculpture,  in  painting  and  engraving,  shall 

symbolize  and  thereby  crystallize  the  ideals  and  aspirations  of  the 

American  people. 

W.  N.  IIAILAIAXX,  Supt.  of  Instruction. 

Dayton,  O.,  October,  1898. 


A  Child's  Pen  and  Ink  Sketches  Very  Much  Reduced. 

Drawn  from  pictures  by  .\.  de  Neuvillc,  made  by  one  of  the  girls  (illustrated  in  this  book)  at 
eleven  years  of  aj^e.  Manyofthe  pupils  can  do  freeworkof  this  character,  owing  to  the  knowledge 
they  have  ofreal  drawing. 


BOOK  ONE 

First  Principles 


"  In  childhood  and  in  the  earliest  period  of  cdu- 
calinn,  have  more  care  for  the  htalth  of  the  botltf 
th;»n  for  the  miiul,  :ind  for  the  inorai  character  than 
for  l!ic  intellrrtunl.  Let  nothing  base  or  ser>-ile, 
vulffar  or  disi^.icefiil,  meet  the  eye  or  a*isail  thcV 
ear  of  the  vounjj;  for  from  words  to  actions  is  buf 
a  step.  Let  their  earliest  and  first  impressions  of 
all  things  be  the  best.  Let  them  be  taught  fully  al^ 
the  essential  elements  of  education  and  as  much  of  ^ 
what  is  useful  in  a  merely  mechanical  point  of  view 
as  will  have  the  effect  of  rendering-  the  body,  the 
soul,  and  the  intellectual  powers  capable  of  arriving 
at  the  highest  excellence  oftheir  respective  natures. 
The  merely  useful,  or  absolutely  necessarj*,  matters 
of  education  are  not  the  only  ones  that  dcser\*c 
attention^  but  to  these  should  be  added  such  as 
exalt  and  expand  the  mind  and  convey  a  sense  of 
what  is  beautiful  and  noble.  For  to  be  looking 
everywhere  to  the  merely  useful,  is  little  fitted  to 
form  an  elevated  character,  or  a  liberal  mind."— 
Aristotle. 


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CHAPTER  I 

Introduction 


N  THE  PROBLEM  OF  CHILD 
education,  than  which  there  is 
scarcely  any  siil)ject  more  widely  dis- 
cussed, tiiere  enters  equally  with 
the  mental,  the  consideration  of 
the  physical  and  the  esthetic  de- 
velopment. I  consider  esthetics — 
the  science  of  the  beautiful  in  nature 
ami  art,  especially  that  which  treats! 
of  the  expression  and  cmhodiment  of'  psthetic 

beautv  in  art — one  of  the  important  training 

L   necessar>'  in 
things  in  education.     The  young,  of  education 

whatever  circumstance  in  life,  have  a 

right   to   the  joy   that   comes   from 

knowing    an<l    perceiving  beauty  in 

nature  and  in  art  forms.    If  we  are  to 

jilant    anything    in    the    young,    or 

gi^e  them  any  capacity, it  should  be 

the    power     of    enabling     them    to 

])erceive    in    their   environment  "the 

gcjod,   the   true   and   the   beautiful."' 

This  of  course  is  to  be  done  at  the  same  time  that  we  give 

the  young  the  capacity  to  make  a  living.    To  teach  them  a  trade 

(3) 


CLOCK 

iX'tkiKnctl,  (Imwn  anil  car^'cil 
hy  hii[h  nch'wl  boy* 


The 
first  tools 


lnEaftntIlDltIsUkn>most1j 
of  children's  irork. 


The 

methods 

advocated 


4  First  Principles 

only,  or  to  fit  them  for  business,  or  commerce  only — to  make 
square  pegs  for  round  holes,  as  \ve  often  do — is  a  mistake.  I 
have  no  sympathy  with  the  manual  training  methods  that  make 
the  use  of  tools  and  workshop  exercises  the  main  end.  The 
pupils  become  simply  machines,  thoughtless  mechanisms.* 
The  first  tools  to  be  used  and  trained  are  the  mind,  the  eyes  and 
the  hands, — the  instnmientalities  of  the  organism.  To  these 
our  chief  care  should  be  given.  It  is  of  little  use  that  the  pupil 
has  built  a  machine  or  performed  a  piece  of  work  by  mechanical 
movements,  if  his  own  organism  is  not  complete,  if  his  hand  is 
not  sure,  his  eye  not  true,  and  his  mind  not  balanced. 

I  make  a  plea  for  this  organic  skill  first  because  I  have 
tested  many  pupils  from  divers  institutions,  and  have  found 
almost  invariably  that  without  instruments  of  precision — 
rulers,  compasses,  gauges,  calipers,  etc. — they  are  powerless. 
In  many  cases  they  are  simply  plan-followers  and  thoughtless 
mechanics,  without  the  elementary  facility  that  small  children 
can  get  spontaneously  in  a  few  weeks'  practice  of  rational 
methods  in  manual  training.  They  have  been  trained  under 
traditional  formulas  to  do  certain  things  in  certain  ways,  with- 
out any  endeavor  to  have  them  realize  the  immeasurable  life 
possibilities  and  potentialities  planted  in  each  person. 

The  methods  advocated  herein  for  elementary  work  in  edu- 
cation consist: — 

1.  In  a  practical  development  of  the  factors  of  the  organ- 
ism itself, — the  hand,  the  eye  and  the  brain — by  the  acquisition 
of  their  conscious  control,  to  be  followed  by  automatic  control. 

2.  In  the  use  at  certain  periods  of  powerful  rectifving 
exercises  to  reform  or  correct  awkward  muscular  movements 


•  "  We  teach  hoys  to  he  such  men  as  we  are.  We  do  not  teach  them  to  aspire  to  be  all  they 
can.  \Vc  do  not  give  them  a  training  as  if  we  believed  in  their  noble  nature.  We  scarce  educate 
their  bodies.  AVe  do  not  train  the  eye  and  the  hand.  We  e,\ercisc  their  understandings  to  the 
apprehension  and  comparison  of  some  facts,  to  a  skill  in  numbers,  in  words;  we  aim  to  make 
accountants,  attorneys,  engineers,  but  not  to  make  able,  earnest,  great  hearted  men.  The  great 
object  of  Education  should  be  commensurate  with  the  object  of  life.  It  should  be  a  .-noral  one; 
to  leach  self-trust;  to  inspire  the  useful  man  with  an  interest  in  himself;  with  acuriositv  touching 
his  own  nature,  to  acquaint  him  with  the  resources  ol  his  mind,  and  to  teach  him  what  there  is  in 

ah  his  strength,  and  to  intlame  him  with  a  piety  toward  the  Grand   Mind  in  which  he  lives." 

[Emerson,  "Lectures  and  Biographical  Sketches,*'  I'age  134. 


Introduction 


of  work 


or  habits,  as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  facility,  balance, 
proportion,  accuracy,  magnituiles,  fitness  and  grace. 

3.  Exercise  in  ditlerent  mediums,  as  wood  and  clay,  for 
acquiring  dexterity  and  skill  in  shaping  various  ideas. 

4.  Exercises  for  acquiring  accurate  and  permanent 
organic  memories  of  environment:  (a)  From  nature,  at  periods 
when  impressions  are  most  vivid  (nascent  period),  from  animals, 
(lowers,  insects,  shells,  etc.;  (/')  from  art  works  and  ornament 
of  best  periods;  (c)  creative  designing  in  various  materials. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  radical  features  of  my  method, 
apart  from  those  of  ambidexterity  and  memory  drawing,  and 
one  that  must  be  understood  as  !)eing  applied  in  all  our  schools,  ^ 
is  the  rotation  of  the  branches  of  work.  The  pupils  do  not  take  of  bmnches 
a  course  of  drawing  alone,  or  of  modeling  alone,  to  be  followed 
with  another  course  for  a  certain  period,  but  in  every  grade 
from  the  lowest  the  children  are  required  to  work  in  the  four 
departments  of  drawing,  ilesigning,  clay  motleling  and  wood 
carving.  Ry  drawing  ail  forms  first  on  paper,  then  in  soft  clay, 
and  then  in  tough  wood,  all  tiie  possible  physical  co-ordinations 
are  ac(juircd  in  the  different  materials.  The  work  of  making 
form  in  clay  reinforces  the  drawing;  carving  in  wood  reinforces 
the  modeling.  Designing  forms  in  clay  and  wood,  as  well  as 
on  paper,  compels  originalitx  and  invention,  or  the  exercise  of 
the  creative  capacity  at  every  ste])  of  the  work. 

The  method  or  system  of  rotation  varies  with  the  different 
schools.  In  some  the  pupils  change  from  one  branch  to  the 
other  at  each  lesson;  in  others,  at  every  fourth  lesson:  in  others 
again.  ;i  ])iece  of  work  in  each  br;uu-ii  is  finished  before  the 
change  is  made.  This  method  is  very  stimulating  to  the  (jupils. 
and  especiail)'  shows  for  what  they  are  best  suited.  The  exercise 
of  the  opposite  capacities  gives  them  a  chance  to  do  work  in  the 
branches  in  which  they  show  most  deficiency.  Xo  exception  is 
mailc  with  any  ])ui)il — all.  in  the  elementary  courses,  must  work 
in  the  various  mediums,  unless  constitutionally  defective. 

Just  as  I  insist  that  elementary  manual  training  for  the 
young  must  precede  all  s])ecial  work. — such  as  joinery,  cabinet 


First  Principles 


Make  the 
hanJ  skillful 


Influence  of 
beauty 


work,  metal  work,  trade  processes,  or  draughting,  mechanical 
and  architectural  drawing,  object  drawing,  etc., — so  I  insist 
that  the  hand  must,  by  this  rotation,  become  familiar  and 
experienced  with  form  in  these  different  mediums.  All  artists 
and  artisans  at  once  admit  the  reasonableness  of  this.  To  make 
the  hand  itself  skillful  is  necessary  before  it  can  do  its  best 
with  tools. 

By  these  methods  all  pupils  without  exception  develop 
their  capacities.  Some  get  remarkable  power  and  enter  the 
diverse  grades  of  art  work  at  once,  in  various  directions.  All, 
however,  acquire  sufficient  skill  to  enter  the  different  minor 
industries  with  credit.  All,  according  to  their  degree  of 
intelligence,  are  prepared  to  do  skilled  work  with  tools  and 
hands  in  the  different  vocations  open  to  them,  after  very  little 
preliminary  training,  because  they  have  skilleil  hands,  true  eyes 
and  a  certain  amount  of  power  of  expression  and  originality. 

Memory  drawing  and  ambidextrous  drawing,  as  described 
in  the  following  chapters,  are  made  an  important  part  of  the 
course.  By  the  nature-study  drawing  we  endeavor  to  make 
permanent  organic  impressions  of  l^eauty  that  will  be  a  joy  to 
the  pupils  in  their  after  lives,  no  matter  how  poor  and  sordid 
their  lives  may  be. 

So  powerful  is  the  influence  of  a  knowledge  of  beauty  and 
the  joy  that  comes  from  it.  that  it  is  possible  to  make  a 
contented  mind,  or  a  mind  that  will  remain  contented,  if 
necessary,  in  the  most  toilsome  drudgery.  There  is  a  certain 
amount  of  compensation  in  this.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
so-called  "  lower  .classes  "  should  have  small  minds,  or  low 
minds.  The  mind  can  be  expanded,  elevated,  even  in  the 
lowest  stages  of  society.  This  is  done  by  art  methods  rightly 
directed  and  by  esthetic  culture,  especially  that  which  concerns 
itself  with  the  expression  and  embodiment  of  l)eaut\'  in  form, 
which  has  so  important  an  eft'ect  on  the  organism. 

The  training  of  these  activities  has  a  higher  outcome  than 
the  solely  phvsical  one.  It  ministers  directlv  to  a  certain 
amount    of    moral    training;    it    has    distinct    ethical    effects. 


Introduction  7 

Morality  is  embodied  in  nature.   Ideas  of  goodness  and  badness 

are  received  from  things.     Whenever  children  are  taught  to 

use  their  own  faculties,  their  powers  of  choice  and  of  intelligent   Moral  training 

_  anJ  its  value 

selection  mus>  become  developed,  until,  l>y  habit,  perhaps  by 

instinct,    preference    for    the    good    and    dislike    for    the    bad 

become  ingrained. 

It  is  no  more  difficult  to  make  children  realize  the  immu- 
tability of  moral  laws  than  it  is  to  teach  them  the  innnutal)ility 
of  physical  laws.  Just  as  a  child  knows  the  effect  of  gravity,  or 
the  action  of  fire  upon  the  body,  so  it  can  be  brought  to  a 
realization  of  the  distinction  between  the  true  and  the  false,  the 
beautifid  and  the  ugly;  the  standards  of  these  qualities  are 
absolute.  Perception  of  them,  strengthened  by  the  force  of 
habit,  must  come  through  the  repetition  of  intelligent  observa- 
tion and  the  union  of  thought  with  action. 

If  we  are  ever  to  get  true  morality  as  well  as  intellectuality, 
it  will  be  bv  making  the    voung    recognize    the    rightness  of  To  get  true 

,  .  ■>  t  '        •    I      I  •  .  -1  1  -1  morality 

things.      Material  things, — plants.  Mowers,  crystals,  animals. — 

never  cheat.     All  nature  Inims  and  vibrates  with  truth.     \\'atcr, 

trees,  sounds  from  metal,  stones  and  wood,  ring  out  truth  every 

time.     So    will    the    children    when,    with    loving    recognition 

attaineil  through  trained  observation  and  action,  they  realize 

the  divinity  and  mystery  of  things.     Only  by  enjoyment  and 

love  of  work  can  this  be  effected,  and  to  do  this  teachers  must 

inculcate  the  higher  objects  of  work,  of  struggle,  of  .sacrifice  and 

unselfishness,   showing  that   only  by  work,  earnest   endeavor, 

and  unceasing  effort  can  we  reach  the  highest  planes  of  physical, 

mental  and  ethical  culture. 

Ex|)erience  has  gradually  taught  the  author  to  change  a 
great  many  of  his  ideas  and  plans,  until  lie  has  conic,  during 
the  last  few  years,  to  fundamentals  in  this  direction. 

For  educational  purposes,  he  has  found  that  the  teaching 

of  a  trade  is  not  the  most  beneficial  thing  that  can  be  done  for 

I  -iTTi  II  11  <       1-  r       •  Tra  Je  feachlni; 

a  boy  or  a  girl.       He   has   al.so   learned  that  to  take  fifty  boys  not  beneficial 

and  makejhcm  all  carpenters,  or  plumbers,  irresjiectixc  of  their 

different    dispositions   and    tastes,  is  a  wrong,  a  great  wrong. 


8 


First  Principles 


Discover 
capacity,  then 
educate  it 


This  is  one  of  the  tendencies  of  our  modern  systems  of 
e(Uication  tliat  can  be  reatHly  seen  in  most  cities  now  where  the 
inihistrial  and  the  mercantile  ideas  have  l^een  overdone,  where 
chil(h-en  are  fitted  even  in  the  high  schools  and  other 
institutions  for  commercial  courses,  irrespective  of  any  natural 
capacity  they  may  have.  A  great  many  institutions  teach 
typewriting,  stenography,  bookkeeping,  penmanship,  to  all 
comers,  irrespective  of  their  capacity,  and  by  degrees  the 
market  has  become  overstocked. 

There  are  more  clerks  than  we  can  care  for,  and  fewer 
artisans  and  skilled  workers  than  are  needful.  In  response  to 
an  advertisement  in  almost  any  city  requesting  clerical  help, 
hundreds  of  applications  may  be  received.  In  some  cases  the 
applicants  volunteer  to  work  for  the  experience,  or  for  nominal 
pay.  If  an  advertisement  is  put  in  the  paper  for  a  skilled  hand 
worker  in  almost  any  of  the  trades,  the  reverse  is  true;  there  will 
be  very  few  applicants,  and  wages  must  be  paid  in  proportion 
to  capacity. 

It  seems  reasonable  to  me,  and  the  proper  thing  to  do, 
that  we  should  fit  our  children  to  enter  into  pursuits  to  which 
they  are  s])ecia]ly  adapted,  where  there  is  not  already  a  crowd, 
pushing  each  other  to  the  wall.  It  seems  to  me  that  this  should 
be  especially  the  object  of  the  newer  instuutions  of  learning 
that  are  founded  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  helping  people  to 
help  themselves.  I  consider  that  it  is  wrong  to  produce  more 
typewriters,  stenographers,  bookkeepers  and  penmen,  when 
the  market  is  already  overstocked.  It  seems  an  injury  to  the 
ones  already  working.  Of  course  I  know  that  by  struggling,  a 
])ercentage  of  these  newcomers  will  achieve  distinction,  that 
they  will  gradually  work  their  way  to  the  top.  But  how  about 
the  large  percetitage  who  do  not  have  much  capacity  to 
struggle,  who  do  not  have  even  sufificient  energy  to  make  the 
required  movements  to  change  their  environment  and  to  start 
anew  in  some  other  line,  who  remain  drudges  on  account  of  this 
lack  of  disposition,  or  this  mental  inertia?  Certainly,  we 
should  consider  them. 


Introduction  9 

My  first  idea  in  teaching,  years  ago,  was  simply  to  give 
several  kinds  of  drawing, — drawing  from  ohjects,  meclianical 
drawing,  etc..  and  to  teach  a  few  trades.     U'c  tauglit  carpenter   pj^sj 
work,  designing,  painting,  pottery  work,  mosaic  setting,  metal   experiments 
chasing,  and  needle  work  of  several  kinds,  at  different  times.  • 

The  children  and  adults  elected  their  branches  of  study.  It  was 
gradually  found,  however,  that  this  was  not  the  best  plan. 
Three  or  four  years  of  carpenter  work,  except  in  the  limited 
operations  of  tiic  tra<ie.  did  nt)t  develop  the  eye  and  tlie  hand, 
and  proved  futde  in  developing  the  mind  and  the  judgment. 
The  operations  being  mostly  mechanical,  and  being  performed 
by  instruments  of  precision,  c\ery  time  a  board  was  cut  it  would 
be  marked  off,  every  time  a  piece  of  wood  was  cut  it  would  be 
gauged;  the  caliper,  the  T  stpiare  and  the  ruler  were  con- 
stantly used. 

The  sentiment  of  Michael  .\ngelo  gradually  entered  my 
mind:  "  We  must  carry  our  instruments  of  precision  in  the  eye, 
not  in  the  h.ind."  Only  after  striving  and  struggling  up  above 
the  use  of  instruments  of  precision,  rulers,  compasses, 
mechanical  methods, do  we  recognize  their  futility  in  developing 
the  mind,  the  judgment,  the  eye  and  the  liand.  The  mechanical 
methods  had  to  give  way,  one  after  the  other,  after  trial  in 
various  directions.  Only  by  trying  and  testing  the  old  methods, 
and  thus  proving  their  fallacy,  diil  we  emerge  into  the  light  of 
better  ways. 

Feeble   art   methods,   traile   tr;iining,   abuse  of  geometric 

forms  and  blocks,  false,  artificial  and  unnatural  systems  devised 

for  money-making  i)ur])oses,  were  tried  :uid  proved  w.tnting. 
,  If,  I       .  .       •      •,  .         TunJamental 

.\  number  of  trade  proce.sses  were  tested  wuh  smnlar  results,   methods 

until  we  actually,  by  experience,  came  down  to  fundamental 

facts,    and    f)n    these    we    have    built  up  a  method  reason.ible, 

feasible  ami  without  great  cost,  adapted  to  all  grades,  from  child 

to  adidt;  a  i)lan  that  can  be  .-ijjplied  without  friction  to  every 

kind  of  educational  institution,  and  limited  only  by  the  capacity 

of  the  individual;  a  method  covered  by  natural    law,    working 

with    the   absolute    precision    of    nature    itself;  a  process  that 


fO 


First  Principles 


Educators, 
scientists  and 


will 


unfolds  the  capacities  of  children,  as  unfold  the  leaves  and  flow- 
ers; a  system  that  teaches  the  pupils  that  they  are  in  the  plan 
and  jiart  of  life,  and  enables  them  to  work  out  their  own  salva- 
tion on  the  true  lines  of  design  and  work  as  illustrated  in  every 
natural  thing. 

!Many  educators,  scientists  and  doctors  have  expressed 
their  hearty  good  will  toward  the  method  outlined  in  this  work, 
anything  saving  wear  and  tear  of  mind  and  matter  appealing  to 

doctors  express  ^1-,^,-,^   directlv.     ^luch   time   and   energv   are   saved   to   pupils 
hearty  good  •  ... 

working  this  way:  their  understanding  of  things  being  quick- 
ened, they  have  less  drudgery  to  go  through  to  obtain  facility. 
The  work  is  chiefly  and  above  anything  else  to  be  desired 
for  its  disciplinary  value  as  an  educational  method,  apart  from 
its  practical  value,  in  that  it  cultivates  judgment,  proportion, 
symmetry  and  fitness.  In  drawing  on"*  blackboards,  the 
children  take  exercise.  The  work  is  done  on  so  large  a  scale 
that  they  have  to  move  about,  no  small  work  being  allowed. 
The  children  avoid  the  hal)it  of  peering  at  lines,  shortening  their 
focal  length.  This  is  one  great  trouble  in  the  drawing,  reading 
or  writing  as  usually  followed  in  schools.  In  many  instances 
much  damage  is  done  to  sight.  Too  many  children  wear 
spectacles  in  these  days. 


Original  Design 


I 


CHAPTER  II 


Development  of 
Bent  or  Disposition 


HIS  BOOK  IS  ALSO  PRI- 
iiiarily  written  to  aiil  people 
remote  from  art  centers  and  edu- 
cational opportunities.  It  is 
not  so  much  with  the  idea  that 
witl)  the  hook  they  can  learn  to 
do  the  work,  as  it  is  in  the  way  of 
suggestion  to  those  who  cannot 
he  reached  hy  other  means. 
The  millions  of  such  people, 
young  and  olii.  may  jierhaps  be 
liclped  hy  knowing  that  most  of 
liie  iileas  enihotlied  in  this  hook 
have  been  gained  in  the  hanl 
school  of  experience. 

.\  large  portion  of  the  chil- 
dren in  the  various  schools  and 
in  the  dilTercnt  communities  are 
especially  endowe<l  or  have  a  native  capacity  ft>r  liand  skill, — 
the  power  to  do  skillful  work  in  many  diverse  pursuits.  There 
is  a  much  larger  jjrojjortion  of  these  than  many  people  believe. 
This  has  been  demonstrated  by  numbers  of  experiments  I  have  ^jp.^uy  iir 
made  and  from  graded  tables  based  thereon  for  a  period  of  h.mj  skill 
years.  This  is  true  <>f  tlie  up])er  classes  of  society  as  well  as 
the  lower. 

(11) 


Enlarging  Drawiogs 


12 


First  Principles 


Lack  of  hand 
skill  one  cause 
of  poverty 


Importance  of 
tinJing  out  the 
"bent"  of  the 
young 


Experiments  have  been  going  on  in  a  nunil)er  of  countries, 
and  in  a  variety  of  institutions  and  prisons,  wliicli  have  proved 
conckisively  that  what  liave  Ijeen  termed  "  tlic  lowest  and  most 
degraded  meml)ers  of  society  "  owe  llieir  condition  partly  to  the 
lack  of  this  capacity  and  of  their  hand  craft  being  undeveloped.  I 
have  found  in  penal  institutions  in  which  I  have  taught  or  con- 
ducted classes,  a  fair  proportion  of  pupils  who,  with  development 
and  training,  would  have  shown  extraordinary  capacity.  The 
same  is  also  true  of  peo]--le  who  have  unfortunately  been  bred  in 
the  lap  of  luxury,  and  who  have  never  l;een  taught  to  do  any- 
thing, or  had  their  capacities  in  these  directions  trained.  A  very 
fair  proportion  of  the  pupils  in  some  of  the  best  private  schools 
and  colleges,  where  I  have  been  able  to  come  in  contact  with 
numl>ers  of  this  class,  show  remarkable  skill  and  capacity. 

For  a  series  of  years  I  have  kept  tally  of  numbers  of  cases 
among  parents,  care-takers  and  friends  of  children  who  have 
visited  nn'  various  schools.  Test  questions  put  to  them  show 
that  a  very  large  proportion  ha\e  never  been  al)le  to  develop 
their  bent  or  disposition,  and  in  the  course  of  time  and  expe- 
rience they  have  found  this  out.  One  of  the  commonest  state- 
ments in  my  schools  is  that  made  by  parents,  when  they  say 
their  primarv  desire  in  bringing  the  children  is  that  they  nioy 
get  the  training  which  they  themselves  did  not  have  and  which 
they  shoidd  have  had  when  they  were  young.  It  is  remarkable 
how  many  jjarcnts  acknowledge  that  they  feel  now  that  in 
youth  they  had  a  taste  for  certain  branches  which  they  were 
never  able  to  carry  out.  perhaps  an  inclination  toward  mechan- 
ics or  construction,  or  a  feeling  for  form,  and  it  is  sorrowful  to 
hear  the  regret  that  is  sometimes  thus  expressed. 

If  the  methods  in  this  book  are  good  for  anything  at  all,  it 
will  be  for  the  fact  that  we  do  find  out  bv  their  aid  the  disposi- 
tion or  '■  bent  "  of  the  jiupils.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  this 
capacity  to  find  out  the  especial  capacity  of  pupils  by  various 
tests  is  one  of  the  best  parts  of  our  work.  Surely  this  is  one  of 
the  first  things  to  be  done  in  erlucation.  Even  if  the  children 
are  to  be  compelled  to  follow  certain  distasteful  pursuits  for 


Development  cf  Bent  cr  Disposition 


{3 


lUuslrati'in  ii 


Kn-(-h;iiul  M:inual  and    Mciiiury  Untwiug 


money,  there  is  no  reason  \\li\'  tlics  slioulil  l)c  deliarrcd  from  ;i 
glimi)se  of.  or  an  insij^lit  into,  llie  possiliilities  and  potentialities 
tlicy  have  or  might  have.  Mucii  niij^ht  lie  saved  in  the  way  of 
care  and  worry  to  tiie  individual,  and  nnicii  gained  in  the  giving 
of  a  capacity  to  enjoy,  hy  following  t)Ut  certain  of  the  lines 
herein  contained,  as  a  recreation  or  ;i  liohhy.  I".\eryone  recog- 
nizes the  value  of  this  to-day. 

Few  parents  realize  the  great   \ariety  of  skilled   pursuits 

that  are  now  oi)en  in  the  various  directions  of  hand  work,  as  skilifulness 

iH-nelicial  anJ 
compared  witli  a  few  years  ago      The  old  idea  that  the  only  amcinsof 

respectable  pursuit  for  one's  child  is  a  profession  has  heen  worn   "'^■"''■>' 

'  '  ...  expansion 

out  for    many    years    in    this    coimtry,    hut  it  persists  in  more 

places  than  would  he  suspected,  simply  through  ignorance  of 

the  enorinous  expansion  of  the  industrial  world  of  to-day,  with 


J  4  First  Principles 

its  opportunities  and  fortunes.  I  am  so  penetrated  with  this  idea 
from  my  experience  that  I  consider  it  wrong  for  any  child  in 
any  condition  of  Hfe  to  be  debarred  from  at  least  a  portion  of 
this  fundamental  work.  Even  in  the  professions,  such  as  that 
of  clergyman,  doctor  or  lawyer,  judgment,  reason  and  imagina- 
tion are  required.  It  is  not  fair  that  men  and  women  of  affairs 
should  be  deliarred  from  the  extra  power  and  mental  expansion 
that  these  capacities  or  opportunities  give  them. 
Real  manual  Again,  many  kinds  of  l)usiness  are  so  much  alike,  requiring 

training  a  some  technical  skill  in  diverse  directions,  that  it  is  almost  impos- 

means  of  finding 

out  capacity        sible  for  those  entering  on  a  career  to  be  able  to  find  out  in  a  few 

years  whether  they  are  especially  suited  or  adapted  to  it.  It  is 
very  disheartening  gradual!}-  to  realize  in  the  course  of  time  their 
lack  of  fitness  or  capacity  for  the  pursuit  they  are  following.  This 
is  illustrated  by  thousands  of  cases  all  over  the  world.  I  have  in 
mind  some  bitter  experiences  that  I  have  suffered  individually. 
I  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  a  dentist  who  should  have  been  a 
farmer.  I  have  seen  many  doctors  and  surgeons  wlio  should 
have  been  in  the  possession  of  perfect  control  of  their  hands  and 
fingers,  yet  who  seem  to  be  possessed  of  "  thumbs  "  only.  Every 
year  of  experience  will  show  us  such  distressing  cases,  and  few 
can  attain  to  positions  of  responsibility  and  care  without  coming 
in  contact  with  many  instances  of  this  kind. 

The  author's  hope  is  to  help  that  great  army  of  persons 
who  feel  that  they  are  not  especially  gifted  or  endowed  in  any- 
thing, and  to  make  them  able  to  expend  their  energies  to  advan- 
tage ill  some  practical  way — energies  that  are  too  often  wasted 
and  puttered  away  in  trifling  work  or  labors  that  accomplish 

nothing  in  ministering  to  their  welfare.     Too  often  manv  fail  in 
Necessity  of  an     , .  ^        ,  ,  .  '  ,    .  .  ,     ,      .  i        .     . 

energetic  li'C,  though  possessmg  good  intentions  and  desire  to  do  their 

disposition  l)est.     They  try  one  thing  and  then  another,  never  becoming 

thorough  in  any  direction,  and  never  becoming  able  to  earn  a 
proper  or  sufficient  income.  Their  work  is  only  half-hearted, 
they  do  not  feel  that  it  is  their  mission,  and  consequently  move- 
ments are  made  that  are  not  energetic  enough  and  little 
product  results. 


Development  of  Bent  or  Disposition 


J5 


Satisfaction  is  essential  to  the  niiml  ami  liody.     The  organ- 
ism is  fortunately  so  constituted  that  a  satisfying  income  or  a  ^^nfjai"'" 
full  purse  is  intimately  related   to  a  contented   mind  and  an 
energetic  liody. 

How  many  teachers  there  are  who,  througli  small  pay  and 
physical  and  mental  inertia,  do  injustice  to  their  pupils.  While 
frequently  well  meaning  and  endowed  with  altruistic  desires, 
they  fail  to  accomplish  anything:  nay,  tiiey  even  do  harm  and 
injury,  hecause  to  he  a  good  teacher  recjuires  essentially  the 
ins])iration  that  the  art  of  teaching  is  divine.  It  is  a  mission  to 
teach  children  having  souls.  The  teacher  must  especially  real- 
ize that  each  mind  or  sou!  is  an  immortal  ])art  of  the  future 
heaven  he  or  she  is  helping  to  build. 

How  difTerently  one  feels  and  works  when  the  right  thing  inspiration  by 

and  the  right  wav  have  been  found!  How  much  more  intense   p^"'^"'''"'''"'^* 

,  of  JeeJs 

every  thought  and  action  become.     This  is  one  of  the  objects 

of  this  book — to  show  ways  and  means  that  transform  the  (lull 
routine  and  drudgery  of  teaching  into  a  ])!easurable  and  profit- 
able means  to  the  welfare  of  manv. 


Blackboard  Drill  Work  In  Dctl|p> 


CHAPTER  III 


Importance  of  Contact 
with  Things  instead 
of  the  Symbols  of 
Things  * 


Importance  of 
various  sense 
impressions 


IFE  IS  A  SUCCESSION 
of  lessons  tliat  must  be  lived 
to  be  understood."  "  Experi- 
ence, and  not  memory,  is  the 
mother  of  ideas."  My  desire 
is  to  impress  all  with  the  im- 
portance of  tleveloping  the 
organism  through  each  of  the 
ilitterent  sense  channels,  in 
addition  to  the  verbal  or  word 
centers.  The  tendency  with 
the  present  modes  of  educa- 
tion is  to  overtax  the  memory 
and  overload  the  mind  with 
studied  words.  Instruction  by 
telling  is  a  feeble  mode  of 
impressing  the  mind.  "  Ac- 
tions speak  louder  than 
words."  Only  in  ])roi)ortion  to  my  experience  can  I  under- 
stand the  symbols  of  things,  that  is,  words.  Words  are  empty 
sounds  unless  accompanied  by  clear  ideas  or  thoughts  of  the 


Bench  "Work 


'  1  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Hailinun  for  in;iny  of  the  ideas  expressed  in  this  chapter. 

(i6) 


Contact  with  Things  17 

things  sigiiilied.     I  can  lia\e  true  ideas  or  false  ideas  only  in 
proportion  to  my  exjjerience. 

"  Ideas  are  symbolized  by  words.  Words  are  signs  for  nat- 
ural facts.  Every  oliject,  riglitly  seen,  unlocks  a  new  faculty 
in  the  soul  and  thus  Ijecomes  a  new  weapon  in  our  arsenal  of 
power."     It  is  important  in  the  first  place  to  secure  ideas,  then 

to  connect  these  ideas  with  intelligible  words.     "  The  content  of 

'  .  .  Importance  of 

a  word  dci)en(ls  upon  the  character  of  the  idea  symbolize<l."    To  gettins  ideas 

the  child  the  word  symbolizes  no  more  than  his  own  ideas.  The  '"^^ 
supreme  thing,  then,  is  (i)  to  secure  ideas.  (2)  to  connect  these 
ideas  with  intcl]igil)le  words,  (3)  to  combine  these  ideas  and 
words  with  appropriate  actions,  (4)  to  secure  a  complete  work- 
ing of  this  mechanism  in  each  instance;  this  union  of  securing 
thought  and  action  so  that  it  works  unfailingly  and  in  a  measure 
becomes  conduct  or  behavior. 

Every  natural  object  bristles  with  facts,  teems  with  ideas. 
I  should  be  bristling  with  facts,  I  should  teem  with  ideas'  The 
object  should  inspire  me  to  become  eloquent,  to  give  expression  Thought  fabric 
through  my  various  channels  of  facts  and  ideas.  By  the  tongue  Jf"expre^ton  ^ 
I  should  vocally  give  expression  to  ideas.  I  should  be  able  to 
write  ideas,  and  should  give  expression  to  them  by  means  of 
drawing,  constructing,  modeling,  painting,  etc.  By  this  means 
we  make  thought  fabric  and  mind  structure. 

We  consider  too  much  the  symbols  of  knowledge  instead 
of  tlie  sources  of  knowledge — the  objects,  facts  and  processes 
of  nature  in  time  and  space.  How  can  we  expect  to  grasp  tlic 
ideas  represented  by  these  objects,  facts  and  prr>cesses  unless  Dissipation 
we  embody  them?  We  too  often  introduce  our  children  to  the  "„^.r^v 
sources  of  information  which  books  supply,  instead  of  to  those 
sources  which  nature  and  experience  supply.  If  we  give  them 
information  from  books  only,  there  are  a  consumption  of  vital- 
ity, a  dissipation  of  energy,  a  diversion  of  the  attention  and  a 
prevention  of  the  impulse  which  iiromjits  to  action. 

C)n  the  other  hand,  if  we  introduce  our  children  to  the 
sources  of  know  ledge,  the  facts,  objects  and  processes  of  nature, 
there  are  a  conservation   of  energy,   a   storing  of  vitality,  an 


)8 


First  Principles 


Assimilate  facts, 
not  words 
only 


Repetition  and 
the  force  of 
habit 


Vital  union  of 
head,  hand, 
heart 


inspiration,  and  a  compelling  of  the  attention  that  gives  a 
strong,  active  impulse  to  the  feelings  and  emotions  which 
prompt  to  action. 

We  must,  therefore,  "assimilate  facts,  not  words."  If  we  do 
this,  we  make  our  thinking  structure  and  mental  fabric  at  first 
hand.  This  cannot  be  done  if  we  assimilate  words  alone;  only 
partial  ideas  can  be  formed  that  do  not  yield  complete  mental 
structure.  Ideas  should  grow  in  clearness,  vividness,  compre- 
hensiveness and  accuracy  liy  repetition.  Expressions  through 
the  various  sense  channels  should  be  related  and  associated  in 
thought.  Only  thus  can  we  get  the  apjjropriate  impulse  that 
prompts  to  action;  only  thus  can  we  get  that  right  action  which 
is  the  fruit  of  a  good  education. 

But  not  only  must  we  get  information  first  hand,  but  we 
must  register  it  organically  by  repetition.  It  must  become  a 
part  of  us,  ready  to  be  used  when  needed.  "The  very  essence  of 
knowledge  is  in  possessing  it  and  in  being  able  to  use  it." 

I  want  to  make  clear,  if  I  can,  the  union  which  exists 
between  the  head  and  the  hand,  also  the  union  which  exists 
between  the  head,  the  hand  and  the  heart.  You  cannot  rightly 
train  the  one  without  influencing  the  others.  As  Dr.  Balliet 
says:  "  All  hand  and  eye  work  invohes  l)rain  work,  and  the  dis- 
tinction Ijetween  hand  work  and  brain  work  is  not  true." 

All  the  intellectual  forces  in  the  world  will  not  enable 
me  to  know  the  te.xture  of  velvet  or  sandpaper  until  I  touch 
them,  then  at  once  the  knowledge  is  awakened  in  mv  lirain 
through  my  hand  and  eye.  I  cannot  rub  my  brain  against  the 
cloth  or  the  paper,  I  do  it  through  my  hand  and  eye.  I  cannot 
know  the  shape  of  so  simple  a  thing  as  a  common  comb  through 
the  touch  alone.  I  must  see  it  l)efore  I  can  get  the  right  con- 
ception of  it, my  touch  not  enal)ling  me  to  feel  the  space  between 
each  tooth. 

Few  persons  get  complete  and  correct  ideas  of  the  various 
senses  as  organized,  how  distinct  and  separate  they  are,  and  yet 
how  mutuall}-  dependent  and  connected.  I  can  feel  with  mv 
coarse  fingers  through  very  fine  skin  the  most  delicate  pulse;  I 


Gintact  with  Things 


19 


Illustration  14 


Wood  CarviDg  L'lodb,  I'ublic  bchuul  ui  lndu:>tnjl  Ari 


can  readily  feel  the  l)lood  bounding  along,  on  some  wrists  I 

can  even  see  it,  vet  with  tlie  tongue,  that  has  such  wonderful   vanous  sense 

impressions 
sense  of  touch  for  many  things,  I  cannot  get  the  slightest  sensa-   orsanized  into 

tion  in  this  direction.     This  curious  fact  is  mentioned  hy  Sir  '^•'"'■■■•'-"te  iJeas 

Charles  Bell,  the  discoverer  of  the  functions  of  the  nerves.     The 

sense  of  touch  must  sometimes  he  helped  hy  the  sight.      It  is 

often  difficult  to  touch  certain  parts  of  one's  hand  with  the  other 

without  the  aid  of  sight. 

Drawing  should  he  uscil  as  modes  of  tiiought  expression 

quite  as  often  and  as  much    as   speech    and    writing;    for  while 

pupils  gain  accuracy    of   perception,    they  also  gain  facility  of 

expression,  the  terms  interacting.     Some  one  has  said  that  the   DrawinKa 

...  /••!  .  .•  II  mode  o( 

foundation  of  right  reasoning    is    accurate    perception       How   i,,,,^,,,, 

seldom  would  pupils  shirk  work    and    how    j)leasant  it  would   cxprt-s^^ion 
become  if  drawing  were  used  as  a  mode  of  e.xpression.     Draw- 
ing and  art  work  would  perforce  redeem  the  sordid  homes  of 
many    pupils    by    teaching   a    certain    amount    of   beauty    and 


20 


First  Principles 


BooU-brcd 
people 
indisposed 
to  action 


Importance 
of  visual 
memory 


creating  a  desire  for  it,  instead  of  leaving  them  to  dissipate  their 
energy  by  the  reading  of  senseless  novels  and  trashy  papers. 
Drawing  properly  taught  gives  a  disposition  to  do  sometliing. 
I  do  not  by  any  means  mean  the  kind  of  drawing  given  usually 
to-day,  but  I  mean  drawing  as  a  mode  of  thought  expression 
that  will  lie  used  as  often  as  speech  and  writing.  See  what  the 
product  would  lie.  See  what  the  product  is  already  in  some  of 
our  schools  where  the  chiklren  produce  things  of  use  and  beauty 
for  the  adornment  of  their  homes. 

The  inspiration  to  perform  deeds,  to  make  movements,  is 
so  important  that  I  cannot  help  calling  attention  to  it  contin- 
ually. Prof.  Reuben  Halleck  says:  "  A  glance  around  us  is 
nearly  certain  to  discover  some  persons  of  marked  deficiency  in 
the  world  of  action.  They  may  like  to  learn  and  to  continue 
absorbing  knowledge,  but  they  never  make  any  worthy  use  of  it. 
A  visit  to  the  reading  rooms  of  any  library  will  enable  us  to  find 
chronic,  sponge-like  absorbers  of  whatever  is  written.  Their 
very  faces  come  to  have  a  dreamy,  rela.xed  expression.  These 
persons  generall}  fancy  that  they  are  going  to  do  something 
soon.  But  the  motor  paralysis  becomes  more  and  more  com- 
plete. Sometimes  lioys  are  allowed  to  bury  themselves  in  book 
after  book  until  action  becomes  extremely  irksome  to  them. 
They  love  to  absorb  ideas  and  to  direct  all  tb.eir  motor  energy 
into  dreaming  or  castle-building.  In  the  case  of  the  majority 
of  people,  motor  action  needs  to  lie  cultivated  and  to  be  directed 
to  a  definite  end.  It  is  not  enough  for  one  to  form  an  idea  of 
becoming  a  great  man.  He  must  do  things  to  make  him- 
self great." 

Read  also  Sir  Francis  Galpin  on  "  Inquiries  Into  Human 
Faculty  and  Its  Development:"  "  .\  visual  image  is  the  most 
perfect  form  of  mental  representation  wherever  the  shape, 
position  and  relations  of  objects  in  space  are  concerned.  It  is 
of  importance  in  every  handicraft  and  profession  where  design 
is  required.  The  best  workmen  are  those  who  visualize  the 
whole  of  what  they  propose  to  do  before  they  take  a  tool  in  their 
hands.     Strategists,  artists  of  all  denominations,  physicians  who 


Gsntact  with  Things  21 

contrive  new  experiments,  and  in  sliort  all  who  do  not  follow 
routine,  have  need  of  it.  The  pleasure  its  use  can  afford  is 
immense.  *  *  *  *  j  ijelieve  that  a  serious  study  of  the 
best  method  of  developing  and  utilizing  this  faculty  witlKjut 
prejudice  to  the  practice  of  abstract  thought  in  symbols  is  one 
of  the  many  pressing  desiderata  in  the  yet  unformed  science  of 
education."  Prof.  Halleck  says  further:  "  The  great  danger 
from  castle-building  an<l  inveterate  novel  reading  lies  in  divorc- 
ing ideas  from  action.  The  dreamer  accustoms  himself  to 
become  incapai)lc  of  action." 

I  am  convinced  that  some  of  the  present  methods  of  educa- 
tion devitalize  society.  This  is  a  question  agitated  among  edu- 
cators. And  it  has  been  repeatedly  suggested  that  mere  book- 
learning  does  not  diminish  crime,  but  that  it  increases  crimes 
which  involve  the  exercise  of  i)enetration  and  scholarly  train- 
ing.    .\  writer  on  this  subject  asked  recently    "Whether  the   Too  much 

.short-sighte<l.  illiterate    or    the    craftv,    educated    man    of   evil   ■'^"'•'"K 

'^  -  divorces  Ideas 

design  was  more  dangerous  to  society."  Education  as  at  from  action 
present  conducted  will  not  develop  the  best  potentialities  in 
man's  nature,  will  not  enable  him  to  bring  into  action  the  best 
that  is  in  him.  It  is  luireasonable  to  think  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  "  three  R  s  "  will  do  this  It  !nust  be  something  very 
much  more.  It  must  be  a  training  to  obtain  hal)its  of  self- 
reliance  and  self-control  and  the  golden  fruit  that  results. — a 
training  that  will  make  people  think  and  act  more  instead  of 
less,  that  will  open  up  the  inmiense  realms  of  itleas  so  few  reach. 
Under  the  old  method  of  eilucation,  the  time  being  chiclly 
given  to  the  study  of  words. — primed,  written  and  spoken. — 

the  i)rinted  and  written  words  (svmbols  for  ideas)  are  studied   worJsstuJieJ 

iit  tile  expense 
at  the  expense  of  the  ideas  themselves.     This  leads  to  fal.se  or  of  Ueas 

partial  ideas  and  weak  imagination.     The  vision  is  used  too 

much,  the  pupil  reading  and  writing  at  the  expense  of  eyesight. 

The  focal  length  is  fre(|uciitly  shortened.  an<l  the  too  freijuent 

use    of    fine    finger    movements    retiuircd  in  writing  cause,  in 

many  cases,  nervousness  and  chorea.  Some  of  the  time  given  to 

writing  should  be  given  to  larger  mo\ements.  to  hand  and  arm 


22 


First  Principles 


All  channels 
for  improving 
the  mind  to  be 
used 


Automatic 
obedience  of 
the  hand 


movements,  finger  co-ordinations  coming  last.  This  also 
imi)ro\es  the  writing. 

Tlie  loo  frequent  use  of  the  eye  and  ear  in  the  old  methods 
causes  injury  not  only  to  the  eye.  but  also  to  the  verbal  memory. 
Still  worse  is  it  that,  as  a  result  of  these  wrong  methods,  facility 
in  other  modes  of  expression  and  impression — such  as  drawing, 
painting,  making,  creating,  etc. — becomes  dormant  or  torpid 
through  never  having  been  used. 

Under  the  new  methods  of  education,  all  the  channels  for 
impressing  the  mind  of  the  child  should  be  used  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. Through  the  vision,  the  touch,  muscular  sense,  hearing 
and  speaking,  impressions  should  be  assimilated,  and  through 
the  same  channels  expression  should  be  given  to  the  ideas 
formed  by  creating  and  designing  in  diverse  mediums. 

The  soundest  mental  fabric  is  built  by  the  perceptions  that 
arc  the  most  accurate,  and  that  call  into  play  for  their  expres- 
sion the  largest  groups  of  associated  and  connected  motor  cen- 
ters; sense  movements,  incoming  and  otitgoing.  Thought  and 
action  are  organically  related,  and  education  consists  in  firmly 
connecting  them  by  repetition  and  habit.  I  am  convinced  that 
the  so-called  "  thought  studies  "  are  valueless  unless  they  are 
firmly  locked  in  the  mind  by  systematized  impressions  from 
things  by  action  and  that  their  value  depends  on  the  facility  of 
expression  which  comes  from  accurate  perception. 

Real  manual  training  is  the  basis  of  all  elementary  educa- 
tion, because  "  the  hand  is  the  instrument  of  instruments  and 
the  mind  is  the  form  of  forms  "  (Aristotle).  Through  the 
union  of  the  brain  and  the  hand,  the  products  of  nature  have 
been  made  useful  and  valuable  to  man,  and  the  work  of  the 
world  has  been  accomplished.  The  hand  should  be  made  spon- 
taneously obedient  to  the  mind;  it  should  start  forward  instantly 
to  obey  the  mind  by  the  ajjpropriate  movement,  as  the  tongue 
usually  obeys.  Book  study  and  word  study,  preaching  and 
praying,  will  not  give  this  desired  disposition  to  work  and 
action.  It  must  Ijc  the  result  of  rational  training  and  attention 
to  its  needs  during  the  jieriod  of  growth. 


Contact  with  Things 


23 


I  firmly  l)elieve  that  we  need  to-day  trained  and  skillful 
hands  mure  than  we  need  fluent  tongues.  Yet  I  also  consider 
the  training  herein  ailvocated  the  most  essential  for  the  getting 
of  true  eloquence  of  the  tongue.  Right  ideas  and  right  deeds  are 
the  primary  inspiration  for  hoth.  To  deprive  a  child  of  this  train- 
ing is  to  prevent  it  from  ever  knowing  the  potentialities  of  its 

own  nature;  to  prevent  the  chiKl  from    knowing    and    loving  Right  manual 
.         I        .  •  •       I  1       ..    .       r  1  r     11    training  will 

nature  as  she  should  be  loved —  the  fountam  and  source  of  all  give  a  love  of 
education,  science,  art  and  religion."*  To  deprive  the  child  of  nature 
this  training  is  to  rear  it  in  ignorance  of  its  power  to  use  hand 
and  eye,  a  power  that  can  be  mastered  at  an  early  age:  and  a 
power  the  proper  development  of  which  aids  so  much  toward 
practical  success  in  the  actual  work  of  life,  while  also  aiding  the 
physical,  mental  and  spiritual  welfare  of  the  individual. 


•  Dr.  G.  Slanlcy  Hall. 


"^ 


y^^- 


v^r 


CHAPTER  IV 


Different  kinds 
of  manual 
training 


Distinction  Between 
the  True  and  False 
in  Manual  Training- 


HE  OBJECT  OF  THE  NEW  EDUCA- 
tion  is  to  get  ideas  in  a  rational  way  at  first 
hand,  l:)y  using  the  activit}-  of  the  child. 
It  is  (Hlificult  to  decide  which  kinds  of  man- 
ual training  are  educational  and  which  are 
not;  which  kind  of  manual  training  should 
be  used  and  which  not.  Many  manual 
exercises  are  valueless  for  training  and 
education,  and  yet  nearly  all  kinds  of 
manual  training  educate  to  a  degree.  It 
is  amusing  to  see  the  variety  of  opinions, 
even  among  intelligent  people,  as  to  what 
kind  of  m;unial  training  is  best  for  educational  purposes.  The 
manual  training  that  should  be  given  is  that  which  develops  in 
the  individual: 

1.  The  art  of  building  ideas  by  using  most  of  the  chan- 
nels of  HHpression  and  most  of  the  means  of  t'.rpression. 

2.  Accurate  perceptive  powers. 

3.  Facility  of  expression,  not  only  in  writing  and  verbally, 
l)ut  in  a  variety  of  ways  through  the  hands. 


4- 


The  strengthening  of  thought  fabric  and  mind  struc- 


ture, and  capacity  to  use  the  same. 

(24) 


True  and  False  Manual  Training  25 

5.  Most  skill  in  the  shortest  space  of  time. 

6.  Fitness  for  the  greatest  nimil>er  of  fundamental 
operations  or  pursuits. 

The  power  of  expression  in  language,  written  or  spoken, 

depends  on  accurate  perception  of  things,  on  the  power  to  form 

clear,  definite  ideas.     Some  kinds  of  manual  training  dull  the   Methods  that 

prevent  real 

power  ot  accurate  perception  and  limit  the  power  of  assimilating  manual 
new  impressions.  Some  forms  of  so-called  manual  training  are  *™"'"S 
so  mechanical  that  lliey  prevent  co-ordinations  tliat  otherwise 
would  have  been  made,  consuming  valuable  time  at  the  most 
vital  period.  Under  this  head  I  include  such  operations  as 
paper  cutting  and  folding,  stick  laying,  sloyd,  whittling,  sawing, 
planing  and  joinery  work  and  other  merely  mechanical 
movements. 

Nothing  can  be  inore  absurd  than  the  e.xtravagant  claims 
made  for  sloyd  ami  several  similar  narrow  mechanical  methods. 
For  instance: 

'■  That  the  knife  is  the  only  too!  by  means  of  which  alone 

a  finished  object  can  be  correctiv  made."     "  That  it  is  tlie  most  stupid  claims 

.  .  .   '  ,,  .  .     'or  sloyd 

familiar  and  the  least  mec'nanica!  of  tools."  "  That  it  necessi- 
tates greater  concentration  of  thought  and  attention  than  any 
other  tool."* 

■'  Vou  can  acquire  a  sensitiveness  of  touch  and  correspond- 
ing correctness  of  eye  more  effectively  l>y  the  judicious  use  of 
sandpaper  than  in  any  other  way."  "  The  curve  can  only  be 
cut  by  hand,  and  hence  in  other  courses  of  woodwork  curved 
forms  are  eschewed,  except  those  tliat  can  be  cut  wiiii  a  fret 
saw  and  drawn  with  an   '  architect's  curve."  "t 

Such  .stateirents  carry  their  own  condemnation  to  any 
thinking  person  who  really  understands  what  true  hand  skill  or 
inaiuiai  training  is.  I  iiave  seen  a  sign  painter  so  drunk  tiiat  ho 
could  not  stand,  but  had  to  sit,  yet  he  was  able  to  space  out  and 
block  in  letters  with  wonderful  accuracy.    I  have  seen  a  carriage 


•  "Sloyil,"  Ijirsnn,  nnntntt,  iSqj. 

t  •*  A  Pica  for  Sloy«l,"  by  T.  <i.  Ko«»|Mrr,  Kcprlntcd  from  "  Hand  and  Eye,"  iS^ 


26 


First  Principles 


Limited 
skill 


Utilitarian 

idea 

overdone 


painter  in  the  same  condition  striping  or  painting  long  lines 
free  hand  on  w  heels,  with  marvelous  precision.  No  real  carver 
in  wood  ever  uses  anything  hut  his  eye,  hand  and  chisel,  no 
matter  how  elaliorate  the  curves  are.  These  operations  are  not 
the  results  of  genius,  they  are  simpl_\'  the  results  of  skill,  with 
very  few  physical  co-ordinations,  and  are  such  as  all  children 
can  learn,  without  exception. 

The  utilitarian  idea  has  been  considered  too  much.  The 
"  useful  model  "  has  been  done  to  death,  the  articles  made 
being  of  the  nature  of  bread  boards,  salt  boxes,  towel  racks, 
knife  boxes,  scoops,  etc.  Children  have  wonderful  energy  and 
curiosity,  but  a  few  months'  familiarity  with  these  household 
objects  dulls  their  desire,  and  the  work  jiartakes  of  the  nature 
of  a  task  or  drudgery.  Of  course  children  will  take  to  any  kind 
of  tools,  like  ducks  to  water,  to  escape  from  the  schoolroom 
routine,  even  if  it  is  a  "  whittling  class."  But  consider  what  they 
might  have  been  doing  in  the  way  of  real  manual  training  and 
invention,  and  in  the  creation  of  beauty. 

The  utilitarian  idea  is  a  valuable  one,  but  it  can  readily  be 
used  to  dwarf  and  stultify  the  child's  energies.  We  can  of 
course  say  that  the  child  learns  by  "  doing,"  but  a  great  deal 
ilepends  upon  the  character  of  its  deeds.  No  feeble  amateur 
with  "  knife  work,"  no  plain  mechanic  or  carpenter  with  ham- 
mer and  chisel,  should  dare  to  dally  with  the  works  and  mental 
mechanism  of  a  child.  As  well  let  an  idiot  repair  a  watch  with 
a  stick.  The  child,  if  left  to  its  own  impulse,  will  assuredly  do 
something  and  find  out  something. 

Again,  though  sloyd  may  be  good  for  Sweden,  where  the 
nights  are  long,  the  children  require  occupation,  and  the  homes 
need  the  useful  models  (this  being  the  original  reason  for  sloyd, 
as  an  authority  admits*),  this  country  has  very  different  needs 
for  its  youth. 

Sloyd  is  selected  as  an  example  of  the  work  that  is  not  true 
manual    training,    or   the    best    kind    of   elementary    work    in 


•  "Sloyd,"  Larson,  Boston,  1S93. 


o 

Q 


3 


c 


C/) 
r> 

=r 
O 

o 


3 
C 


> 

a- 


r- 
> 
H 
m 


for 
criticism 


28  First  Principles 

manual  training,  because  it  is  considered  in  so  many  quarters  to 

he  superior.     Sloyd  is  selected  for  criticism  because  it  has  been 

sloyd  selected      SO  thoroughly  tried,  and  with  many  advantages  in  several  cities, 

no  expense  having  been  spared  and  all  possible  facilities  having 

been  offered  for  its  easy  introduction.    I  consider  sloyd  perhaps 

the  best  of  all  the    amateur    woodworking    systems,  though  I 

dispute  the  claim  that  there  is  any  real  drawing  in  it.  unless 

mechanical  draughting  is  considered  to  be  drawing.     It  has 
SloyJ  not  real  ,,-,.,,  .  ,  ■      .  ,-r 

nianu.-ii  training  been  graded  to  fit  children  from  the  age  of  nine  to  htteen  years 

— six  years  of  the  most  vital  period  of  life.     I  have  never  seen 

a  sloyd  pupi!  or  teacher  who  really  had  the  elementary  manual 

training  required  of  some  of  our  little  children,  as  described  in 

this  book. 

It  seems  as  though  the  chief  idea  in  sloyd  was  to  see  how 

many  different  tools  could  be  used  and  how  many  operations 

could  be  devised,  little  thought  being  given  to  the  absolute 

needs  of  the  eye,  the  hand  and  the  mind  as  funtlamental  tools. 

"  It  includes  seventy-two  exercises  with  forty-five  tools,  in  eight 

kinds  of  wood,  and  is  now  employed  experimentally  in  several 

Automatic  schools     in     Boston."*      In     line     with     paper     cutting     and 

Jextenty  folding,     slovd     is     occupation     or     "  busv     work,"     but     is 

desired  .  "  . 

very     slightly     educational.       Ten     courses     of     sloyd     work 

will  not  give  the  pupil  the  automatic  facility  desired,  or 
even  fundamental  co-ordination  of  the  motor  centers  of 
the  hands.  Throughout  the  entire  course,  instruments  of 
precision, — the  rule,  the  compass,  the  try-square,  the  gauge, — 
are  used  constantly.  Therefore,  the  eye  and  the  mind  never  get 
the  unconscious  automatic  power  of  grasping  magnitudes  and 
])roportions  so  essential  in  elementar_\-  training  during  the 
period  of  growth. 

Is  it  not  a  mistake,  then,  to  tliiiik  that  facility  in  anv  one 
narrow  mechanical  direction  is  proper  manual-training  educa- 
tion? Should  not  one  look  with  suspicion  upon  operations, 
such  as  paper  cutting,  stick  laying,  whittling,  sloyd,  etc.,  which 


"Sloyd,"  Larson,  Boston,  iSoj. 


True  and  False  Manual  Training  29 

produce  sucli  little  results  and  consume  so  much  precious  time, 

and  endeavor  to  find  operations  that  will  give  fundamental  skill 

that    is    valuable    and     that    can    be    used    in    all    occupations 

or  trades? 

The  graded  courses  and  exercises  in  some  other  kinds  of 

woodwork  and  drawing,  extending  over  two  or  three  vears.  ^"""^ 

exercises 
with  all  exercises  thought  out.  mapped  out  and  charted  before-  consume 

hand,    limit    the    pupils'    capacitv    for    doing    original     work.   '^"^''Kyand 
'     '  '  ■  :  inspiration 

designing  or  creative  work,  besides  consuming  the  energy  at 

the  nascent  period,  the  period  of. growth,  that  should  be  given 

to  right  manual  training,  wiiich  if  not  given  at  this  period  makes 

good  results  impossible  at  a  later  period.     It  is  like  waiting  for 

the  hand  to  become    fully    grown    before    undertaking    violin 

playing  or  piano  playing,  or  some  other  operation  requiring 

skill,  instead  of  allowing  the  hand  to  grow  into  the  positions  so 

much  to  be  desired  by  skillful  performers  and  workers,  with  the 

added  penalty  of  the  physical  impossibility  of  getting  into  these 

positions  after  a  certain  time  has  elapsed.     The  same  is  also 

true  with  regard  to  the  mental  states;  after  a  certain  time  has 

elapsed  it  is  as  impossible  for  the  mind  to  invent,  to  design,  to 

create  spontaneously  and  automatically,  as  it  is  for  the  fingers  or 

limbs  to  move  skillfully,  automatically  and  spontaneously. 

Of  course  I  do  not  speak  against  i)r((])er  wotxlworking 
ojjerations  as  described  in  this  book. — joinery,  cabinet-making  Proper wooj 
and  pattern-making.  After  fundamental  manual  trannng  skill  operations 
has  been  ac<|uired.  these  special  trade  operations  are  fit  and 
proper  in  their  right  jilace.  just  as  mechanical  draughting, 
machine  drawing,  architectural  drawing,  are  right  and  projier, 
after  training  in  fundamental  drawing.  I>ut  it  is  wrong  to 
select  a  few  oj^erations  from  any  of  these  processes  and  give 
them  to  young  children  as  proper  elementary  training. 

In  many  places  drawing  and  manna!  training  are  sci)aratc 

and  disassociated,    courses   of   one   being   given    separate  and   '^^""^' 

■      '^  '  trainInK  a 

distinct  from  the  tithcr.      In  some  cases  the  absurdity  of  this  is   moJoof 

shown  by  graded  work  for  each,  as  though  they  were  entirely   ^^Z^^^i^,„ 

different  studies  and  not  related.     It  is  as  though  drawing  were 


30 


First  Principles 


IJeas  the 
basis  of 
originality 


Art  in 
handicraft 
very  rare 


not  a  mode  of  thought  expression,  a  means  wlierehy  ideas  of  the 
form  and  shape  of  things  are  recorded,  and  as  if  manual  training 
were  not  a  mode  of  thought  expression  in  making  and  recorcHng 
these  forms  and  ideas  l)y  the  hands. 

The  catalogue  of  some  schools  will  usually  show  under  the 
head  of  manual  training,  for  boys — w^ood  turning,  pattern  mak- 
ing, foundry  molding,  forging,  machine  work  and  liench  work 
in  wood,  mechanical  drawing,  draughting  and  designing;  for 
girls — sewing,  dressmaking,  millinery  and  cooking.  These  are 
.  occupations  or  trades  that  are  good  in  themselves,  but  are  lim- 
ited in  their  capacity  to  train  hand  and  eye  to  correctly  carry 
out  the  dictates  of  the  mind. 

Still  more  do  the  trade  processes  mentioned  fail  to  develop 
the  formation  of  thought  structure  by  the  working  out  of 
original  ideas,  which  is  the  basis  of  true  originality.  Right 
methods  of  manual  training,  on  the  other  hand,  do  bring  about 
this  union  of  thought  and  action,  whereby  the  pupil  is  enabled 
to  //;/))/.'  of  the  right  thing,  at  the  right  time,  in  the  right  place, 
and  in  the  right  way,  and  then  to  do  it. 

I  must  not  be  understood  here  to  speak  against  trades. 
I  am  in  favor  of  every  person  having  a  pursuit  and  occupation, 
but  I  speak  against  the  idea  that  possession  of  a  trade  process, 
or  several  trade  processes,  necessarily  means  true  hand  skill  and 
right  manual  training,  the  power  to  make  the  hand  obey  the 
mind.  The  lack  of  this  power  explains  the  lack  of  real  skill 
among  so  many  workmen.  The  artist  artisan  is  the  exception, 
whereas  he  should  be  the  rule.  Art  in  handicraft  is  even  more 
rare  than  handicraft  itself.  The  methods  laid  down  in  this 
book,  properly  taught,  supply  the  primary  training  that  will 
give  the  skill,  the  hand  facility,  the  co-ordination  of  hand,  eye 
and  brain,  without  which  true  handicraft  can  rarely  be  attaine<l, 
even  by  many  years  of  application. 

But  the  youth  who  has  had  this  true  manual  training  dur- 
ing his  elementary  schooling  has  already  acquired  more  real 
skill  of  hand  and  eye  than  the  average  apprentice  working  dur- 
ing the  like  period  at  trade  I'jrocesses  onl\-,  while  the  manual 


True  and  False  Manual  Training  31 

trained  youth  is  infinitely  better  off  as  regards  mental  develop- 
ment and  character  building.  The  manual  trained  youth  is 
wonderfully  fitted  to  acquire  dexterity  in  trade  processes.  He  training  better 
assimilates  them  unconsciously,  because  his  hand  is  already  so  *han 
thoroughly  skilled.  He  will  learn  a  trade  and  become  a  better 
workman  in  it  in  a  few  months  than  the  ordinary  apprentice 
would  do  in  several  years. 

"  What  is  manual  training?"  To  some  it  means  an  exer- 
cise for  muscles,  like  gymnastics,  and  to  others  a  process  of 
making  boys  merely  handy;  others  think  it  a  way  of  teaching 

trades  to  children,  and  nearlv  all  confound  it  with  mechanical   W"''''"'"' 

traininK  not 

training  and  suj^pose  a  drill  is  necessary  in  sawing  and  planing,   hand  training 
chipping,  filing,  wood-turning,  plumbing,  etc.,  very  few  disas- 
sociating it  from  the  use  of  machinery  and  from  slow,  tedious 
trade  processes,  or  dream  that  it  has  anything  to  do  with  women 
and  girls. 

Real  manual  training  for  the  education  of  individuals  can- 
not be  obtained  by  mechanical  pursuits  similar  to  carpentry, 
plumbing,  chipping,  filing,  etc.  Real  manual  training  is  not  a 
matter  of  simply  doing  different  things;  it  is  the  intelligent 
selection  of  modes  from  the  manv  operations  and  pursuits  most 

What  real 

suited  to  produce  the  effect  desired.  Swinging  dumb-bells  or  „,anuai 
pushing  a  plane  or  saw  produces  muscles,  but  does  not  require  training  is 
the  constant  use  of  the  intellect;  the  thinking  powers  are  not 
increased  in  ratio.  There  are  many  exercises,  then,  more  fit  for 
our  purpose.  We  must  select  for  manual  training  purposes, 
work  and  methods  that  in  addition  to  giving  muscular  activity, 
will  e.xercise  the  peripheral  nerves  as  tools  of  the  senses. 

It  includes  all  processes  that  train  the  muscles  and  the  mind 
to  work  in  harmony.  In  some  of  its  applications  it  gives  skill 
in  planing  boards  and  shaping  iron;  but  just  as  legitimately  does  mmd  must 
it  make  the  hand  cunning  to  dissect  a  nerve,  to  engrave  an  etch-  wwk  together 
ing  or  to  finger  a  violin.  .\nd  as  no  school  of  manual  training 
is  obliged  to  teach  anatomy,  engraving  and  nnisic,  so  no  school 
of  the  kind  must  necessarily  teach  joinery  or  chipping  and  filing. 
Those  who  believe  that  such  i>rocesses  are  inseparable  from  the 


32 


First  Principles 


o>!>V.^ 


Hand  skill 
should  precede 
trade  training 


What  are 
drawing  and 
manual  training 


use  of  saws  ami  liammers  have  not  looked  all  around  the 
subject. 

The  distinction  between  right  manual  training  and  trade 
processes  is  therefore  clear.  The  one  precedes  the  other,  just 
as  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  precede  accomplishments 
in  the  law  or  the  ministry.  Right  here  is  a  special  field  for  true 
manual  training  that  is  bound  to  widen.  The  old  plan  of  teach- 
ing the  trades  has  been  found  wanting,  in  tliat  it  consumes 
much  time  and  yet  turns  out  workmen  poor  in  craftsmanship 
and  equally  deficient  in  purpose.  The  new  idea  is  to  teach  the 
trades  in  trade  schools,  or  technical  institutions,  where  the 
vouth  is  carefully  instructed  in  technical  processes  by  experts. 
These  trade  schools  are  destined  to  increase  in  number  and 
efficiency,  as  have  the  schools  of  law,  medicine  and  theology. 
The  youth  who  has  had  a  proper  course  in  manual  training  will 
acquire  skill  in  the  mechanical  movements  incident  to  any  spe- 
cial trade  in  a  fraction  of  the  time  that  it  requires  for  the  novice 
who  is  untrained  in  facility  of  hand  and  eye.  And  this  is  true, 
whether  the  trade  be  taught  in  a  technical  school,  or  acquired 
by  haphazard  in  an  ordinary  apprenticeship. 

\\diat  are  drawing  and  manual  training  when  ])roperly 
taught? 

They  are  modes  of  getting  ideas  first  hand  and  giving  ideas 
first  hand. 

They  bring  al)OUt  the  union  of  thought  and  action  which  is 
so  essential  to  the  well-being  of  the  in<li\-idual. 

They  are  physiologically  and  psychologically  sound. 

They  are  methods  that  train  the  powers  of  the  instincts  as 
they  develop,  that  rightly  educate  these  powers  during  their 
formative  ])eriod,  when  most  responsive  to  good  or  bad-  influ- 
ence.    They  unify  and  simplify  the  courses  of  study. 

They  fit  for  the  real  work  of  life,  for  this  training  has  a 
practical  application  in  almost  every  vocation. 

Drawing  and  manual  training,  properly  taught,  do  away 
with  tradition  and  the  traditional  errors  in  education.  They  are 
modes  of  thought  expression,  just  as  speech  and  writing  are 


True  and  False  Manual  Trainings  33 

modes  of  thought  expression.  Drawing  is  an  universal  tongue. 
It  compels  observation,  reflection,  perception  and  ci)ncepti()n. 
It  opens  the  mental  eye.  the  eye  of  the  understanding,  that  looks 
all  around,  up  and  down.  It  enaljles  one  to  understand  the 
message  that  is  printed  in  every  natural,  normal  thing,  that  is 
stamped  with  everlasting  lines  on  each  side  of  every  leaf  and  Drawing 
blade  of  grass,  that  is  twisted  into  the  architecture  of  every  makes  mind 
shell,  and  that  shines  in  the  hues  of  every  crystal — a  message 
of  beauty,  of  proportion,  of  grace  and  of  fitness.  Drawing 
makes  mind. 

Drawing  and  manual  training  properly  taught,  as  Ilailman 
says.  "  render  lucid  the  latent  spiritualities  of  matter."  They 
"  enhance  the  utilities  of  life  by  clothing  them  with  beauty," 
give  power  to  do,  power  to  enjoy. 

One  objection  that  lias  rightly  been  made  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  so-called  manual  training  methoils,  especially  by 
connnittces  and  superintendents,  has  been  the  great  expense  of 
the  plant  and  equipments  necessary.  In  large  cities  like  Phila- 
del])hia,  only  95  cents  per  amium  jier  pupil  is  now  spent  for 
all  supplies  in  general  school  work — books,  pencils,  paper,  pens,  objections oa 
and  sewing  materials.  In  the  light  of  this  fact,  it  seems  ^'^^^'Junt of  cost 
absurd  to  pay  for  benches,  sets  of  tools,  etc..  for  .so-called 
manual  training,  sums  ranging  from  $15  to  $30  per 
l)U])il.  lor  a  plant  that  can  be  used  by  a  very  limitetl 
number;  the  sloyd  bench  and  tools  alone  costing  sometimes 
as  much   as  $30. 

The  cost  of  the  i)lant  for  the  manual  training  herein  set 
forth  is  verv  small.     It  will  be  noticed  that  but  few  and  verv 

Economy  of 
inexpensive  tools  are  specified  for  the  work  in  drawing,  model-  right  method 

ing  and  carving.     In  the  Public  School  of  Industrial  .\rt.  forty 

sets  of  carving  tools,  costing  less  than  $5  each,  and  a  few  simple 

tools  for  use  in  modeling,  with  some  models  of  natural  and  art 

forms,    suffice    ior    1000    ])upils.     The    suitplies    re<iuircd    are 

equally  inexpensive,  consisting  mainly  of  chalk,  pencils,  ink  and 

brushes,  cheap  paper,  .some  clay,  etc.,  costing  very  little  per  year 

per  capita.     This  slight  expenditure  only  is  reciuiretl  for  four 


34 


First  Principles 


Ease  of 

application 
to  large 
numbers 


Cost  of 
elaborate 
plants  should 
be  spent  on 
teachers 


different  departments — drawing,  designing,  clay  modeling  and 
carving,  not  one  only,  as  in  other  systems. 

Another  advantage  of  these  methods  is  to  l)e  found  in  their 
ease  of  application  to  classes  of  large  numbers,  without  large 
expense;  in  fact,  if  necessary,  the  work  in  drawing,  the  drill 
work,  the  ambidextrous  work  on  blackboards,  can  all  be  done 
on  slates  and  common  manilla  paper.  A  few  sets  of  tools  and 
appliances  for  modeling,  and  the  cla\'.  can  l)e  used  in  common 
by  as  many  classes  as  can  be  brought  in  succession  into  the 
room.  The  same  with  the  carving.  Although  this  is  not  the 
best  plan,  it  is  inexpensive. 

Because  of  the  economy  of  plant  and  supplies,  this  method 
of  manual  training  is  within  reach  of  the  smallest  or  poorest 
schools  as  well  as  those  in  wealthy  communities. 

Tiie  saving  in  equipment  over  improper  methods  may 
well  be  invested  in  more  teachers  and  better  teachers.  It 
is  as  wrong  to  employ  an  underpaid  and  ox'erworked 
teacher  (the  two  usually  go  together)  in  manual  training 
instruction  as  in  other  ijranches.  The  tendency  iti  school 
work  has  been  too  much  toward  extravagance  in  equipment 
and  parsimony  towar-d  instructors.  Fine  buildings  and  costly 
apparatus  never  compensate  for  poor  teachers.  It  is  the  teach- 
er's enthusiasm  that  must  help  to  inspire  the  pupil;  the  teacher's 
intuition  that  must  aid  in  discovering  the  pupil's  individuality 
and  help  him  to  make  the  most  of  it;  the  teacher's  human  inter- 
est that  must  warm  u])  a  responsive  interest  in  the  pupil.  These 
attributes  of  the  teacher's  personality  can  be  supplied  bv  neither 
books,  apparatus  nor  buildings.  The  teacher  has  a  mission  to 
perform,  he  gives  more  of  his  very  life  to  it  than  the  worker  in 
other  vocations,  and  should  be  paid  and  esteemed  accordingly. 


CHAPTER  V 

Lack  of  Real 
Drawing — 


ERE   IT   iMAV    BE   EIT   TO 

interject    some    of    my    ex]ieri- 

ences   at    tlie    World's    I'air   at 

Cliicacfo  in   1893.   Eor  jjurposes 

of  gaiiiinfj  experience,  as  well  as 

of  exliihitinji^  our  methods,  we 

lia<l  a   very   large  space  in  the 

cdncalional  department.  adj(3in- 

ing  the  most  important  of  the  technical   schools  and   colleges. 

In  this  space  I  j)nr])osely  had  several   "  traps,"  one  of  which  was 

a   hlackhoard   twenty   feet    long.     My   jnirpose   in    having  this 

blackboard  was  to  test  adults  and  children  of  all  conditions  as  to 

their  capacity  in  certain  directions.      These  tests  are  tabulated 

and  systematized,  and  I  discovered  several  interesting  facts. 

Xot  more  than  four  i)er  cent,  of  the  drawing  teachers  who 

were  tested  could  draw , — 1  mean  ilraw  a.s  a  mode  of  expression, 

delineate  what  they  thought.     Tiie  rest  de])ended  (jn  the  iuo<lel 

entirely,     .\mazement  was  expressed  continually  at  their  even 

being  recpiested  to  draw  something  simply  witlntiU  a  model.      1    Lack  of  real 

fouml  onlv  eight  cases,  out  of  several  hundred,  that  had  facilitv   P"*'^''°' 

•     JrawinK 

of  hand,— I  mean  the  kind  of  elementary  facility  refjuircd  in 
this  book  from  children.  The  tests  were  put  to  the  teachers  of 
a  great    many    leading    institutions,    ami  to  norm.il  ;irt  school, 

(3.S) 


36  First  Principles 

college  and  technical  graduates.      Almost  invarial^ly  there  was 

an  absence  of  proficiency  in  organic  drawing,  and,  considering 

the  amount  of  time  they  had  given  to  the  work,  their  imitative 

drawing  was  feeble  beyond  the  power  of  words  to  express. 

Approaching  this  question  from  the  art  side,  the  impreju- 

diced  observer  who  has  anv  knowledge  of  art  cannot  fail  to 

realize  and  be  impressed  with  the  lack  of  any  tendency  toward 

art  training  in  most    of   the   common    schools   of  the  country. 

,    ,    ,    ,  There  is  a  gulf  between  the  teachers  and  the  idea  that  has  never 

Lack  of  art  <=• 

training  in  been  crossed,  and  the  poverty  of  ideas  on  the  part  of  teachers, 

common  schools    .        ,,.  .  ,  .'  .  -,  .^  ,  . 

intelligent  in  other  respects,  is  amazing.     It  seems  as  if  nothing 

right  was  being  done,  and  that  ignorance  ruled  in  these  matters. 
This  is  not  owing  to  any  fault  of  the  teachers. 

I  am  inclined  to  lay  more  Idame  upon  the  inventors  of 
certain  systems,  who  are  never  artists,  who  are  liacked  by 
publishing  firms,  and  whose  chief  idea  is  to  sell  books  and  mate- 
rials. Some  of  the  schemes  are  so  artificial  as  to  require 
different  sets  of  materials,  copy  books  and  plant  for  different 
grades,  and  constructions  and  technical  terms  have  been  so 
loaded  upon  these  things  that  it  requires  a  wise  teacher  and 
special  training  in  the  methods  of  the  books  alone  to  be  able  to 
understand  their  object  and  their  purpose.     This,  fortunately. 

False  systems     ^.^^^.  j^^^.  tga^hers  endeavor  to  do.     Some  of  the  svstems  claim 

formulated  by 

publishing  firms   that  their  books  and  materials  clo  awav  with  the  necessity  of  the 

teachers    being    able    to    draw,    and    tliat    instruction    can    be 

imparted    in   an    easy    and    reafly   fashion    by    means    of   these 

ecjuipments.     .\nd   so   the   game   goes   on   at   the   expense   of 

the    children. 

Another    of    my    chief    reasons    for    writing    this    Ijook    is 

because  I  feel  I  can  be  of  service  to  a  large  proportion  of  the 

community  represented  by  the  superintendents  of  schools,  also 

members  of  school   committees,   usually  men  and   women   of 

affairs,  and  others  interested  in  the  well-being  of  the  schools  in 

various  towns  ami  cities  of  the  L'nioii.     The  spirit  of  the  age  is 

compelling  many,  in  spite  of  dislike,  to  advocate  various  kinds 

of    manual    training    in    the    schools,     and    through    lack    of 


C/) 


-n 
o 

c 

70 


38 


First  Principles 


Sewing  and 
cooking  not 
real  manual 
training 


Necessity  ot 
systematic 
training  of 
the  senses 


knowledge  (and  it  is  a  little  unreasonable  to  expect  superin- 
tendents and  others  to  he  experts  on  these  subjects)  many 
experiments  and  methods  of  work  are  being  tried  that  are  fun- 
damentally wrong,  as  will  be  proved  by  experience.  For 
instance,  various  kinds  of  carpenter  work,  knife  work,  sloyd 
methods,  paper  cutting  and  paper  folding  are  being  incorpo- 
rated at  much  expense  in  schools  as  manual  training. 

I  do  not  object  to  sewing  and  cooking.  I  consider  them 
very  important  things.  But  for  our  purpose,  they  are  not 
methods  of  artistic  or  manual  training.  I  consider  cooking  one 
of  the  most  important  of  all  the  arts,  and  I  must  be  ranked  as 
an  advocate  of  both  cooking  and  sewing,  in  the  proper  place. 
The  proper  place,  howe\er,  is  not  that  gained  by  usurping  the 
inanual  training  idea  in  education,  because  every  thinking  per- 
son will  realize  that  cooking  does  not  give  exceptional  dexterity 
and  skill  of  hand  in  the  arts,  nor  does  sewing.  If  we  must  haxe 
special  experts  to  teach  cooking,  sewing,  writing,  drawing, 
music,  should  it  not  be  necessary  for  us  to  have  experts  to  teach 
mathematics,  history,  geography,  and  the  other  studies?  This 
seems  to  be  the  tendency,  but  it  is  not  feasible  in  the  schools. 
\\'hat  is  to  prevent  the  ordinary  teacher's  having  a  certain 
amount  of  capacity  in  these  directions?  We  certainly  cannot 
call  the  teacher  an  educated  person,  or  one  able  to  teach,  unless 
he  or  she  has  some  ability  in  these  directions. 

In  the  beginning,  nothing  is  more  important  than  the 
necessity  of  making  the  various  senses  alert  and  bright  by  con- 
stant and  systematic  use.  The  perceptive  faculties  should  be 
made  accurate,  the  memory  correct,  the  thinking  and  the  will- 
ing powers  strong  and  true  by  direct  use  on  things.  These 
capacities  or  faculties  dimini.sh  very  rapidly  for  lack  of  use,  and 
at  certain  stages  the  organism  refuses  to  work,  and  the  best 
impressions  possible  are  dull,  fleeting  and  feeble,  not  being  dis- 
tinct enough  to  form  even  nebulous  ideas.  ^Mental  structure, 
thought  fabric,  must  be  maile  Ijy  children'  coming  in  contact, 
first  hand,  with  things,  receiving  and  assimilating  all  the  pos- 
sible sense  impressions,  and  making  all  the  jwssible  movements 


Lack  of  Real  Drawing  39 

ami  reactions.  Xo  mere  memorizing  of  printed  words,  no 
jugglinjf  witii  figures,  no  listening  to  a  series  of  discuiniected 
facts,  will  take  the  place  of  organic  impressions  permanently 
registered  and  systematized. 

This  can  best  be  done  by  means  of  the  various  modes  of 
expression,  when  the  hand,  the  eye  and  the  mind  are  continu- 
ously and  pleasural)ly  storing  up  facts  and  making  the  recjuired 
movements.  Tiie  most  perfect  lessons  can  be  received  from  the 
most  common  and  the  simplest  things.  Hence,  a  good  teacher 
will  make  use  of  common  and  simjjlc  things.    In  the  elementary   Drawing 

stages  of  education,  drawing  and  modeling,   proncrlv  tauglit   t^instiie 
■="  *  fa'    I       1        .  to        perceptive 

from  the  most  interesting  and  simple  forms,  train  the  perceptive  faLuities 

faculties  of  children  more  than  any  other  study,  strengthen  the 
memory,  juilgment  and  imagination,  and  arouse  the  instinctive 
investigation  so  powerful  in  all  children.  The  idle  curiosity  of 
untrained  children  is  the  starting  point  for  the  good  teacher. 
This  curiosity  nuist  be  cherished,  intensified  and  stimulated 
until  the  habit  of  complete  and  willing  attention  is  formed,  the 
teacher  gradually  increasing  the  power  of  attentive  application 
of  the  pui)il  until  the  stage  of  genuine  study  and  hard  work  with 
the  eye.  hand  and  intelligence  is  obtained  as  a  natural  growth. 
Aristotle  has  saiil,  "  The  hand  is  the  instrument  of  instru- 
ments and  the  mind  is  the  form  of  forms."  Surely  we  must 
give  some-  real  and  fundamental  training  to  the  hand.  This 
hand  skill  is  to  be  ac(|uired  by  all.  not  because  they  are  to  work. 
but  because  they  cannot  afford  to  l)e  without  a  training  that    Hanaskill 

makes  brain  co-ordinations  form  sense  connections,  and  there-   "laki-s 

,  .  .  .  ......        intelligence 

fore  aids  or  makes  nUeIhgence,  reasi  ii.  nnagniation  and  judg- 
ment in  the  shortest  way.  This  hand  skill  is  retpiisite,  not 
necessarily  to  enable  its  possessors  to  !)ccome  artists  or  artisans 
— though  j)ossessing  art  skill  and  capacity  through  esthetics  is 
essential  to  complete  culture,  and  this  is  ihe  side  usually  to  be 
considered — beauty  acted.  V>y  maiuial  training  methtxis  the 
person  becomes  able  to  rieal  ami  ilo  with  things  if  necessary,  to 
be  always  ready  to  enjoy  an<l  appreciate  nature,  and  grows  self- 
reliant  because  confident  of  power. 


40  First  Principles 

I  should  like  to  utter  a  protest  against  the  vain  experiments 
of  certain  psychologists  who  are  at  present  misleading  teachers 
in  wrong  methods  of  child  study;  who  are  simply  dallying  with 
things  that  are  not  essential.  A  great  loss  of  energy  is  the 
result.  For  this  they  have  been  performing  trifling  experiments 
on  troops  of  children,  efforts  that  have  no  product.  Why  not 
study  the  acts  of  children  for  some  useful  and  educational  pur- 
pose, for  some  method  that  will  tend  to  conserve  their  energy 
and  health?  I  think  that  half  the  energy  given  to  some  of  these 
things,  spent  on  investigating  the  capacity  of  expression 
through  the  hand,  would  soon  lead  to  golden  fruit.  The  possi- 
bilities and  potentialities  in  this  direction  are  unlimited.  Let 
this  field  be  worked. 

In  all  my  experience  I  have  never  yet  found  a  teacher  edu- 
cated by  book  methods  able  to  draw.  This  seems  an  incredible 
statement,  yet  from  my  point  of  view  it  is  correct.  By  drawing 
I  mean  thought  expression  and  power  to  express  ideas  of  all 
forms  on  surfaces  and  in  things;  not  the  feeVjle  imitations  of  cer- 
tain methods,  of  conventional  forms,  with  labored  application, 
bit  by  bit,  dot  by  dot,  but  to  have  organically  the  power  at  once 
to  delineate  balance,  proportion,  grace,  beauty,  fitness.  By 
drawing  I  mean  the  vital  union  of  thought  and  action  that  gives 
definite  expression  to  individual  thought  through  the  hand, 
the  power  to  reproduce  mental  images  just  as  we  express  them 
by  speech,  after  assimilating  certain  sense  impressions;  creating 
and  designing  nattire  anew. 

I  have  actually  had  pupils  come  to  me  who  have  recently 
wasted  money  and  energy  by  trying  to  learn  drawing  by  corre- 
spondence through  the  mails.  Perhaps  very  soon  some  people 
will  try  to  teach  music,  singing,  for  instance,  the  same  \\ay. 

The  methods  I  advocate  are  no  longer  new.  Ambidex- 
terity, psycho-physical  co-ordinations,  memory  work,  rotation 
of  classes  and  other  features  peculiar  to  our  course,  have  re- 
ceived the  test  of  time  and  application  to  large  numbers. 

Could  any  sane  person  walk  around  the  ten  acres  of  school 
exhibits  a  few  years  ago  at  Chicago,  at  the  World's  Fair,  and  be 


Lack  of  Real  Drawing 


41 


Illustration  lo 


Till.  lii..h..uJ  Cn.k 

Thcac  tcacb'jrs  <m  pracu^ing  la^'gc  Ircc-haiiJ  iiiovt^nicnta  iit  urdcrlu  acquire  facility 


satisfied  with  the  work  going  on  under  the  name  of  art,  of 
drawing,  of  manual  training?  Coulil  anyone  for  a  moment 
think  that  it  represented  tlie  work  of  indivichial  cliild  life,  of 
growing  organisms,  each  one  alive?  Did  it  not  all  seem  fash- 
ioned from  the  same  mean  lack  of  thought  exhibited  by  some 
plan  or  system  maker?  Did  it  not  show,  in  its  various  simi- 
larity, an  endless  repetition  of  the  same  things — the  hand  of 
trade?  Did  it  not  show,  from  its  very  constant  and  feeble  ring- 
ing of  the  changes  on  cubes,  blocks,  cones,  i)risms,  defini-  'nsuffi^ii'm-yof 
tions, — the  iteration  of  terms,  construction,  representation  ami 
decoration, — shallow  minds  wading  in  a  morass  of  second- 
hand thoughts,  words  and  jihrases;  able  to  talk,  parrot  fashion, 
but  not  able  to  do;  able  to  say,  but  not  to  feel;  ;ible  to  preach, 
but  not  to  act?  In  short,  to  dogmatize.  That  is.  literally,  to  as- 
sert with  undue  confidence  and  to  advancewith  arrogance.  Did 
it  not  show,  from  end  to  end,  the  commercial  element,  the 
spirit  of  greed  for  money  at  the  expense  of  mind?    There  were 


42 


First  Principles 


Teachers  must 
be  able  to  draw 


Super\-isors 
shoulJ  be  able 
to  draw 


Misuse  of 
type  forms 


only  a  few  green  oases  in  the  desert,  represented  by. some 
schools,  where  I  actually  found  real  autumn  leaves  and  fruit 
forms  drawn  and  colored  by  the  pupils.  \"erily,  the  sacrifice  was 
awful.  Hundreds  of  miles  of  paper  with  "  soft  gray  lines  "  rep- 
resented thousands  of  minds  distorted  and  drawn  out  of  shape. 

I  state  without  fear  of  contradiction  that  no  one  who  is 
unalile  to  draw  should  attempt  to  teach  drawing,  yet  withoiit 
one  exception  I  have  foun<l  the  presenters  and  representers  of 
all  commercial  systems  unable  to  draw,  and,  what  is  far  more 
saddening,  none  of  their  pupils  could. 

I  protest  once  more  against  anyone's  teaching  drawing 
who  is  mial)le  to  draw.  It  seems  that  many  of  the  supervisors 
and  so-called  experts  on  this  subject  throughout  the  country, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  are  unable  to  draw.  Most  of  them 
have  worked  a  few  years  at  some  art  school,  chiefly  at  imitative 
^v()rk.  The}'  luue  made  a  few  liglit-and-shade  drawings  and 
have  studied  perhaps  a  little  perspective.  They  have  painted  a 
fev.-  flowers  and  made  a  few  carpet  designs.  And  then  they 
start  out  on  their  career  with  some  "  system."  The  children  are 
expected  to  perform  a  series  of  graded  exercises,  usually  of 
"  geometric  forms "  and  "  objects  based  upon  geometric 
forms."  They  are  compelled  to  work  from  type  forms  until 
they  are  sick  of  them,  and  then  they  are  expected  to  see  resem- 
blance in  the  most  diverse  objects  to  these  type  forms. 

It  seems  to  me  that  this  is  fundamentally  wrong.  We 
should  teach  the  children  to  look  for  dissimilarities.  \\"e  should 
make  their  observation  acute  to  notice  how  different  and  unlike 
things  are  to  each  other.  It  is  very  stupid  to  me  to  make  chil- 
dren labor  at  a  cone,  for  instance,  and  then  gWe  them  the  wrong 
iilca  that  a  lamp  chimney  and  a  carrot,  ink  bottle,  etc.,  are  based 
on  this  cone,  because  there  is  a  very  slight  resemblance.  To 
me  they  never  look  alike,  and  I  have  never  yet  found  a  bright 
child  who  will  begin  to  associate  them  in  the  mind  voluntarilv. 
Remember.  I  believe  in  type  forms  and  in  geometric  forms  in 
the  right  place,  but  they  arc  abstractions.  Children  should  have 
nothing  to  do  with  abstractions  in  the  beginning.     Before  they 


Lack,  of  Real  Drawing  43 

are  given  any  iilea  of  the  type  forms,  tlieir  niimls  slioulil 
be  stored  with  a  scries  of  tlie  natural  forms,  from  which  we 
receive  the  idea  of  the  type.  When  a  ciiild  has  become  familiar 
with  apples  and  marbles,  soap  bubbles  and  other  round  things, 
then  the  abstract  idea  of  the  sphere  may  be  grasped. 

It  may  seem  a  little  unfair  that  I  should  attack  the  methods 
of  the  so-called  drawing  teachers  in  the  schools,  but  what  are  we 
to  do  when  we  find  the  great  lights,  or  authorities,  so-called, 
giving  utterance  to  statements  like  the  following.  In  the 
report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion for  1896.  on  Page  693.  will  be  found  such  a  statement  as 
this,  not  by  an  ordinary  teacher  or  a  teacher  of  drawing,  but  by 
the  superintendent  of  drawing  for  a  whole  city — a  teacher  of 
teachers:  "  There  is  such  a  thing  as  a  child  having  too  much 
candy,  and  therr  is  such  a  thing  as  a  child  having  too  mucli  PooUsh 
beautv.     Me  mav  become  so  accustomed  to  it  that  he  will  not  statements  by 

,       ■  so-c.illed 

appreciate  it."     I  leave  the  above  to  speak  for  itself.  teachers 

Again,  we  find  in  the  same  book,  on  Page  700,  not  signed 
by  one  j)erson  only,  but  by  half  a  dozen,  including  a  college 
president,  a  director  of  one  of  the  chief  institutions  in  the  coun- 
try and  several  otfler  fery  ])rominent  jieople,  the  following: 
"  The  use  of  colored  papers  is  the  best  means  now  available  of 
presenting  and  apjilying  standards  or  iileals  of  color,  scales  of 
these  standards,  and  combinations  of  dilTcrent  scales."  I  protest 
against  stained  i)apers  of  any  kind.  I  have  never  yet  seen  natural 
colors  on  the  papers  used  for  this  purpose  in  schools.  They 
are  artificial  and  crude  in  all  respects.  What  is  the  matter  with 
the  real  colors  of  nature,  as  exhibited  in  (lowers,  shells,  stones, 
butterflies,  insects,  feathers,  birds,  etc? 

.\gain,  the  same  book.  Page  698:  "  Models  of  the  pure 
geometric  types  of  form,  which  un<lerlie  all  the  manifold  variety 
of  form  in  both  nature  and  art.  siiould  be  studied  in  connection 
with  these  selected  objects  in  order  that  jjupils  may  learn  to  see 
how  the  type  forms  are  the  ba.sis  of  all  other  forms.  Having 
in  mind  accurate  and  distinct  concepts  of  the  types,  the  puj)il 
can    more   easilv    un<lerstand    their    lunnberless    modifications. 


44 


First  Principles 


Absurdities  of 

commercial 

systems 


Artificial  forms, 
stained  papers, 
etc.,  useless 


The  art  part 
vital 


Having  a  clear  understanding  of  their  modifications,  he  can 
best  express  his  ideas  of  them  l)y  drawing."  I  have  personally 
shown  this  complex  sentence  to  many  artists.  I  have  not 
heard  one  agree  with  it.  I  have  yet  to  know  any  artist  of 
importance  who  was  ever  educated  in  this  way. 

Another  sentence  is  as  follows:  "The  exercises  should 
also  be  distinctly  classified  so  as  to  cover  the  three  great  divi- 
sions of  all  art  work,  namely:  Representation,  or  the  appearance 
of  form,  decoration  or  the  ornamentation  of  form,  and  construc- 
tion or  the  facts  of  form."  This  sentence,  perhaps,  will  be  the 
key  to  a  great  many  of  the  absurdities  indicated  above.  It  simply 
shows  to  one  who  has  studied  the  whole  question  carefully,  and 
without  prejudice,  that  none  of  these  so-called  authorities  can 
themselves  draw,  or  have  the  beginning  of  an  idea  about  draw- 
ing, but  that  they  have  a  very  complete  idea  of  an  artificial  sys- 
tem which  has  been  classified  and  systematized  until  drawing 
and  art  have  absolutely  disappeared  from  it.  I  venture  to  assert 
that  not  one  of  them  ever  painted  a  picture  or  modeled  a  statue. 

How  absurd  it  is  then  that  they  should  stand  up  as  authori- 
ties on  the  subject  and  mislead  people.  It  has  been  done,  how- 
ever, for  a  purpose,  and  that  purpose  is  to  sell  various  mate- 
rials,— series  of  books  for  each  grade,  series  of  artificial  forms  in 
wood  graded,  pencils  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  stained  papers, 
geometric  shapes,  etc.  This  has  gone  on  until  even  the  cost  of 
these  things  makes  the  work  impossible  in  many  schools  and 
frightens  the  simple-minded  by  the  seeming  complexity  and 
difficulty  of  a  very  simple  sul)ject.  Indeed,  drawing  requires 
less  plant  and  arrangements  than  any  other  branch  in  the  school 
curriculum,  because  drawing  can  be  done  with  only  a  piece  of 
paper  and  pencil,  or  a  slate  and  pencil,  if  necessary. 

We  must  see  that  art  comes  into  every  step  of  the  elemen- 
tary or  fundamental  work,  using  the  word  in  its  fullest  meaning 
— ars,  artis, — "  skill  in  joining  and  fitting,"  "  the  emplovment 
of  means  to  accomplish  some  desired  end,"  "  human  labor 
regulated  by  design."  In  every  stage  of  the  work  the  instru- 
mentalities of  the  pupils    should    be    set    directlv  at  work,  the 


Lack  of  Real  Drawing  45 

hands,  the  e>es  and  the  head.  There  should  l)e  no  instruments 
of  precision,  no  copy  books  to  save  lahor  or  avoid  skill.  The 
art  part  of  a  great  deal  of  work  is  the  part  that  cannot  be  meas- 
ured, weighed  or  marked. — it  is  the  vital  part.  Science  compels 
observation  and  reflection,  but  does  not  always  result  in  action. 
Art  compels  observation,  reflection  and  action,  and  makes  them 
mutuall)'  dependent  on  each  other.  "  Science  is  the  knowing, 
art  is  the  doing."  It,  therefore,  makes  vital  and  alive  tlie  con- 
nection that  should  exist  between  the  inner  thought  and  the 
outward  action. 

I  ])in  my  faith  to  the  superintendents,  if  we  are  going  to 
better  the  schools  in  this  direction,  not  to  the  crank  artists,  art 
directors  and  supervisors.  Superintendents  are  usually  men  of 
affairs,    teachers    who    liave    been    selected     for   fitness   and  ArtanJ  manual 

training 
merit,  men  w  ho  have  been  taught  by  experience.     They  will   teachers  shoulJ 

have  to  realize,  however,  tliat,  just  as  there  are  many  ways  of 
teaching  language,  reading,  geography  and  arithmetic,  some 
gooil  and  some  l)ad,  so  there  are  many  methods  that  go  by  the 
name  of  art  and  of  manual  training  ami  drawing.  They  will 
have  to  demand  that  their  art  directors,  supervisors  and  teach- 
ers should  be  able  to  draw.  I  do  not  mean  that  they  should 
simply  take  their  word  for  it,  or  be  satisfied  with  a  portfolio  of 
drawings  of  objects,  casts,  cubes,  blocks,  or  a  certificate  of  this  j^r  — i 

or  that  normal  art  school  or  mill,  but,  being  rational  men,  that 
they  should  see  that  the  teacher  can  draw,  knowing  that  draw- 
ing is  a  mode  of  thought  expression,  not  simply  a  familiarity 
with  certain  graded  .steps  of  a  traditional  or  dogmatical  thought- 
less plan.  They  should  say:  "  Here  is  paper;  express  youiself; 
draw  a  loaf,  a  house,  a  cat,  a  scroll,  anything  "  Performance 
should  be  the  great  test  in  our  business  not  words  and  asser- 
tions. I  have  actually  known  soTne  teachers,  when  confronted 
in  this  way,  to  say:  "  W  here  is  the  model  for  me  to  copy?" 
Surely  tliese  are  not  teachers,  but  imitators,  cojjvists 

Critics  may  consider  that  the  author  ha.';  devoted  too  much 
attention  to  the  dec(jrative  and  conventional  forms,  to  drill  and 
designing.     He    considers,    however,    that  in  a  book  of  this 


r^ 


46 


First  Principles 


Drill  essential 
in  the 
elementary 
Stages 


character,  w  ritten  to  help  large  numbers  of  workers  in  various 
directions,  the  industrial  art  features  and  their  applications 
should  be  amplified  especially.  But  this  is  not  done  at  the 
expense  of  any  real  art  study.  It  is  really  the  elementary  part 
of  the  truest  kind  of  art  work.  The  drawing  from  motlels  and 
casts,  and  the  other  usual  "  fine  art  "  studies,  are  lightly 
touched  upon,  because  they  are  already  well  known.  The 
aim  has  been,  also,  to  consider  as  much  as  possible  the  large 
number  of  pupils  who  ilo  not  become  artists,  but  who  do  require 
the  skill  and  art  knowledge  essential  for  success  in  the  various 
pursuits  of  life. 


Designing,  Ambidextrous-  Work 


CHAPTER  VI 

Right  and  Left  Hand 
Work,  Ambidextrous 
Work 


TIE  RESULT  OF  THIS  WORK  HAS 
only  to  be  seen  for  one  to  l)econie  im- 
pressed with  its  vahie  as  a  mecHum  for  the 
e(hication  of  tlie  individual.  Tlie  most 
skeptical  arc  convinced  1)\-  the  perfect 
results  produceil,  the  simplicity  of  work, 
the  almost  instant  balance  and  symmetry, 
and  the  visible  development  in  the  direc- 
tions most  to  be  desired  in  the  education 
of  the  hand,  the  eye  and  the  mind. 

Improvement  is  also  made  in  other 
tlirections.  Tlic  co-ordinating  of  one  set 
of  muscles  iinariably  inllucnces  the  rest. 

The    hands,    the   eves   and    the    mind   are   Sympathetic 

'  ,  ,  ,  influence 

exercised  to  a  much  greater  degree  tlian 

is  possible  when  using  them  only  partially. 
Hence,  a  more  symmetrical  whole  is  produced.  The  pupils 
stand  better,  liold  their  heads  more  erect  and  level, — in  a  word, 
they  have  more  understanding. 

If  it  can  be  done  with  the  right  han<l,  why  do  it  with  the 
left?  some  say.  Why  waste  time  that  might  be  given  to  some- 
thing else?  These  (piestions  are  natural,  and  at  first  seem  right, 
but  a  little  thought  makes  one  realize  that  in  many  trades. espe- 
cially the  ones  re(|uiring  skill  of  hatul.  both  hands  need  to  be 

(■•7) 


48 


First  Principles 


Reasons  for 

ambidextrous 

work 


Not 
unreasonable 


used,  and  tlie  more  skilled  the  left  hand  the  better  the  work- 
man. Again,  some  artists  who  first  hear  of  our  ambidextrous 
work  sometimes  think  it  absurd.  They  do  not  realize  that  we 
do  not  attempt  to  sketch  or  paint  witli  the  left  hand,  and  that  it 
is  mainly  for  its  physiological  and  educational  value  that  we 
train  it. 

The  reason  we  do  ambidextrous  work  is  for  the  physical 
co-ordinations  acquired.  Biology  teaches  that  the  more  the 
senses  are  co-ordinated  to  work  in  harmon}-  in  the  individual, 
the  lietter.  If  I  work  with  the  right  hand,  I  use  the  left  side  of 
the  brain;  if  I  employ  the  left  hand,  I  use  the  right  side  of  the 
l)rain.  In  truth,  I  exercise  some  special  region  or  center  of  the 
brain  in  every  conscious  movement  I  make,  and  in  every  change 
of  movement  1  bring  into  play  some  other  center.  If,  by  per- 
forming any  such  action  with  energy  and  precision,  I  aid  in  the 
development  of  the  accordant  center,  I  am  improving  the  cere- 
bral organism,  liuilding  for  myself  a  better  and  more  symmet- 
rical mental  fabric. 

Does  this  seem  unreasonable?  We  use  both  feet,  both  eyes, 
both  ears.  I  am  firmh-  convinced  that  the  better  and  firmer 
the  union  of  each  hand  with  its  proper  hemisphere  of  the  brain, 
and  the  more  facility  we  have  of  working  each  together, 
and  also  independently,  the  better  the  brain  and  mind  and  the 
better  the  thought,  the  reason  and  the  imagination  will  be. 
The  results  of  my  method  have  fully  demonstrated  this  fact,  as 
the  teachings  of  modern  science,  and  especially  of  psychology, 
have  fully  established  the  truth  of  this  contention.* 


•  "  Every  impression  of  sense  upon  the  brain,  every  current  of  molecul.ir  activity  from  one 
to  another  part  of  the  brain,  every  cerebral  reaction  which  passes  into  muscular  movement 
leaves  behind  it  some  modification  of  the  nerve  elements  concerned  in  its  function,  some  after. 
effect,  or,  so  to  speak,  memory  of  itself  in  them  which  renders  its  reproduction  an  easier  matter, 
the  more  easy  the  more  often  it  has  been  repeated,  and  makes  it  impossible  to  say  that,  however 
trivial,  it  shall  not  under  some  circumstances  recur.  Let  the  excitation  take  place  in  one  of  two 
nerve  cells  lying-  side  by  side,  and  between  which  there  was  not  any  original  specific  difference; 
there  will  be  ever  afterward  a  difference  between  them.  This  physiological  process,  whatever 
be  its  mature,  is  the  physical  basis  of  memory,  and  it  is  the  foundation  of  the  development  of  all 
our  mental  functions."— [Maudsley,     Physiology  of  the  Mind,  p.age  27. 


« 


o  n      — ■ 


r  3 


cc 


<     3       _ 

-I  - 

•lib 
f  f  *"" 

it 


"0 

r 

H 


V/ 


50  First  Principles 

I  am  convinced  that  in  proper  manual  training  move- 
ments— exercises  that  make  a  firm, well  knit  union  between  tlie 
hand  and  the  l)rain.  making  the  hand  (and  each  hand)  obey  the 
mind  indc]iendently,  we  are  jiroducing  new  mental  conditioivs. 
or  physical  structure  in  the  brain.  The  l)rain  has  growth  in  the 
beginning  for  a  certain  period,  and  arrives  at  a  certain  size  dur- 
ing youth.  Afterward  it  increases  in  comple.xity  and  structure. 
All  recent  studies  of  the    cerebrum    point    to  the    fact    that  our 

Mindbuiiaing  intelligence  is  associated  with  a  union  of  brain  cells  one  with 
another,  and  the  more  experience  we  gain  through  the  variou.s 
senses,  the  greater  will  be  the  structural  union  and  complexity 
of  the  brain  cells. 

It  seems  wrong  to  sec  children  compelled  continuall\'  to 
memorize  and  to  draw  on  the  reason,  the  fancy  and  the  imagina- 

Abstractwork     tion,  before  they  have  well  developed  centers  or  brain  cells  with 

^^™"'^  which  to  think,  reason  and  ideate.     I  know  for  a  fact  that  the 

energy  of  m;m\-  children  is  consumed  and  exhausted  b)'  the  use 
of  abstract  thought  work  too  early  in  life,  instead  of  Ijeing 
conserved  l)y  proper  training. 

I  claim  better  results  from  the  right  hand,  when  the  left  is 
worked  also,  than  from  the  right  hand  working  alone,  in  the 
same  space  of  time,  in  almost  any  kind  of  hand  work.  In  240 
trades  or  crafts  the  workman  employs  both  hands  cjuite  freelx'. 
and  in  certain  occupations,  like  carving,  engraving,  modeling 
and  chasing,  the  left  hand  works  as  much  as  the  right.  ^^lus- 
cular  co-ordinations  and  facility  with  the  left  hand  as  well  as 
the  right  are  therefore  ver}-  important  and  of  large  practical 
ai)plication,  apart  from  the  physiological  and  mental  \-alue  of 
amiiidextcrity. 

Indeed,  the  old  education  neglected  bolli  hands,  not  the 

Old  methods  of    I'ight  hand  only.     Yet  who  shall  now  sa}-  that  the  education  of 

education  these  marvellous  i)ortions  of  the   anatomv  should  l)e   longer 

neglect  both  ^  .  •  ^ 

hands  neglected?     Truly    says    Sir    Charles    Bell,    in    "  The  Hand "' 

(Page  134): 

'■  The  human  hand  is  so  wonderfully  formed,  so  beautifully 

shaped,  it  has  so  fine  a  sensibility:  that  sensibility  governs  its 


Ambidextrous  Work 


5J 


motions  so  correctly,  every  effort  of  tlie  will  is  answered  so 
instantaneously,  as  if  the  hand  itself  were  the  seat  of  that  will. 
Its  actions  are  so  powerful,  so  free  and  yet  so  delicate,  as  if  it 
possessed  a  quality  of  instinct  in  itself,  that  there  is  no  thought 
of  its  complexity  as  an  instrument  or  of  the  relations  which 
make  it  subservient  to  the  mind.  We  use  it  as  we  draw  our 
breath,  unconsciously,  and  have  lost  all  recollection  of  tlic  feeble 
elYorts  whereby  it  has  been  perfected." 

Surely,  then,  the  new  education  must  not  make  the  mistake 
of  training  but  one  ham! — -one  only  of  these  two  instruments  of 
power  and  action. 

Meissonier  also  said:     "  It  would  be  a  great  advantage  to 
be  ambidextrous, — children  ought  to  be  taught  this  habit." 
Illustration  35 


Krcchand  Orii;in;iI  rK-siyns,  Public  School,  (Jcrinuulown 
All  the  children   In    the  mom  draw  al  Intcrv'nU  on  Ihr  hlarklw>ard  initklni;  oriifinal  dvMiifnu.    The  pupll»  at  thu 
benches  work  on  paper  from  objccl-s  and  in  color.  •i'Mncliiiw-.i  al  ilc..ltrnln^',  ..omcfliiics  al  natural  furiUK. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Drawing  Correlated 
with  Other  Studies 


Correlate  the 
drawing  with 
other  school 
work 


HE     LESSOXS     IX 


ceeding    books    of    this    work 


ISIodeling-  Fruit  Forms  trom 
Nature 


THE    SUC- 

lave 

been  evohed  from  the  resuUs  of  years 

of   experience    in    working  by  a  num- 

I)er  of  different  methods.     They  have 

been  arrived  at  after  mnch  experiment, 

on  account  of  their  snital^iht}-  for  the 

young  and  the  old,  and  the  fact  that 

very  little  plant  is  required.     From  the 

verv  beginning,  the  object  has  been  to 

co-ordinate   or   correlate   the   drawing 

with  all  the  other  school  work.     One 

of  the  greatest  troubles  with  drawing 

by  the  old  method  is  that  it  seems  to 

be   something   entireh'  apart  from  the 

other  studies,  a  mere  accomplishment,  something  for  the  select 

few,    the    ones     who     display     a     certain     amount    of     talent. 

BaJ  use  of  art     This  is  wrong.     Drawing  and  manual  training  are  especially 

work  in  schools  g^^jted  for  backward  and  dull  pupils:  they  are  the  very  ones  who 

most  need  its  training. 

Drawing  can  very  readily  be  made  one  of  the  most  vital  of 
studies,  one  of  the  most  important.  It  is  the  study  on  which 
half  the  drudgery  and  tiresome  work  of  the  school  can  be  placed. 


Drawing  Correlated  With  Other  Studies  53 

It  is  the  study  tliat  makes  pleasing  and  interestinjj  to  them- 
selves the  work  of  the  pupils.  Drawins:  and  manual  training, 
above  all  other  work  studies,  will  enable  the  child  to  work  out 
its  own  salvation,  in  the  fact  that  tlicy  form  a  disposition  to 
action  and  allow  the  child  to  make  the  energetic  m<)\cments 
that  are  so  good  and  proper  for  its  well-being. 

Drawing  in  the  i>ast.  to  many  teachers  anil  children,  has 
consisted  of  mere  imitative  work  from  a  few  type  forms. — mean- 
ingless blocks.      It  has  not  been  made  a  vital  and  connected 

part  of  their  other  studies.      If  children  are  to  know  things,  to   Compels  love 

of  nature 
gain  knowledge  (and  their  coming  to  school  is  for  this  purpose), 

I  know  of  nothing  that  will  take  the  place  of  the  riglit  kind  of 
instruction  in  drawing,  as  it  compels  their  attention  to  things, 
if  properly  presented. 

Take,  for  instance,  a  rural  school,  where  the  children  get 
a  little  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic,  in  homeopathic  doses. 
and  very  little  of  anything  else.  See  what  glorious  possibilities 
and  potentialities  there  are  here,  if  the  teacher  has  any  idea  of 
drawing  as  it  should  be  taught.  Right  at  the  door  is  the  whole 
field  of  nature — plants,  flowers,  insects,  animals,  stones,  fruits, 
vegetables,  can  be  procured  without  any  trouble.  The  children 
are  delighte<l  to  bring  almost  anything  in  the  way  of  models  of 
this  kind.  If  they  are  near  the  seashore,  the  boys  can  get 
en<lless  forms  of  life  in  the  way  of  seaweeds,  shells,  crabs,  fish. 
etc.  If  in  the  mountains,  the  same  can  be  done  with  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  plants,  weeds,  stones,  birds,  fish,  insects,  etc. 
These  forms  can  be  drawn,  and  the  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
spelling,  composition,  punctuation. and  other  studies  hung  on  as  The  ivKinning 
inci<Icntals.  The  children  will  be  fascinated  and  inspired  at  first  "' w'sJom 
hand.  They  will  take  an  added  interest  in  their  work,  esi)ecially 
when  the  doors  of  their  minds  .ire  opened  and  the  things  of 
which  they  see  so  much  and  know  so  little  are  transformed 
for  them. 

Farmers'  children  and  others  should  know  all  about  the  birds, 
bugs,  caterpillars,  tlies,  si)iders.  weeds,  plants,  the  flowers  and 
common  growths  of  their  environment,  and  thus  have  matter 


54 


First  Principles 


Knowledge  of 
things  of  first 
importance  in 
education 


Good  pictures 
improve  taste 


that  will  be  of  value  and  an  aid  to  them  iu  their  future  life.  This 
is  very  much  better  than  cramming  them  with  disconnected  facts 
of  historv  of  far-off  countries,  incidents  in  the  lives  of  kings  and 
statesmen,  that  are  not  of  much  value.  Of  course  the  young 
should  become  as  completely  educated  as  possible,  but  if  they 
are  to  have  one  thing  or  the  other,  let  them  get,  first  of  all, 
direct  knowledge  of  their  own  environment. 

There  is  no  reason,  even  in  city  schools,  why  similar  work 
should  not  be  done;  though  the  country  child  has  far  greater 
advantages  in  the  way  of  studying  natural  forms,  the  city  child 
has  manv  compensating  advantages.  Nearly  all  chiklren 
can  get  from  their  homes  and  from  their  friends  any  of  the 
simple  common  things  in  the  way  of  leaves,  plants,  shells,  ani- 
mals, etc.,  that  are  the  fundamentals  of  study,  and  with  which 
we  should  first  fill  the  mind  of  the  child  before  we  attempt  to 
give  the  higher  tliought  studies. 

I  can  see  already  this  change  coming  in  many  places, 
akhough  so  far  it  is  mostly  in  the  way  of  the  introduction  of 
things  that  have  utilitarian  value  alone, — trades  similar  to  car- 
penter work,  cooking  and  sewing,  which  to  me  simply  consume 
the  valual)le  time  of  the  children  without  educating  them.  I 
think  the  time  is  near  at  hand  when  the  true  idea  will  be 
received.  Institutions  like  the  Drexel  Instittite,  the  Armour 
Institute,  the  Pratt  Institute,  are  simply,  in  my  mind,  protests 
against  the  old  methods  of  education.  They  are  schools  where 
the  pupils  Icani  by  doing,  and  though  in  some  cases,  trades  are 
taught  instead  of  real  education  being  given,  I  think  the  latter 
W'ill  be  the  next  step. 

No  one  can  see  how  newspapers  and  books  are  changing, 
with  their  endless  pictures  and  illustrations;  no  one  can  see  the 
imi^rovements  and  means  of  getting  l)etter  pictures  in  all  direc- 
tions, without  realizing  that  this  mtist  have  a  great  influence  on 
the  education  of  those  to  come.  The  same  is  trtie  with  regard  to 
smooth  roads,  electric  lights,  the  bicycle,  etc.,  all  influences  that 
are  tending  to  make  life  easier  and  better.  Some  of  the  papers 
and  magazines  to-day  are  real  works  of  art.     Continually  they 


56 


First  Principles 


Futility  of 

present 

methods 


Drawing  a 
mode  of 
thought 
expression 


Meissonier 


are  pouring  out  on  the  multitude  streams  of  visual  information 
that  must  have  an  influence.  The  school  is  bound  to  keep  in 
line  with  these  things.  Better  methods  and  better  text-books 
and  appliances  must  be  used.  The  old  methods  liazx  to  change, 
and  the  teachers,  too. 

Appliances  in  the  schoolroom  that  have  been  used  for  20 
years  are  still  being  used  the  wrong  way,  and  at  the  wrong  time, 
such  as  copy  books  and  drawing  models,  imitations  of  copies, 
etc.  In  some  schools,  systems  of  geometric  forms  (wooden 
ones)  are  used  during  the  entire  eight  years  of  the  school 
life  of  the  child  by  teachers  who  have  never  been  able  to 
draw  from  the  beginning. 

Can  anyone  fail  to  realize  how  tired  and  weary  the  children 
must  become  of  these  things,  and  especially  when  they  do  not 
find  any  vital  connection  in  them  with  their  work?  A\'e  cannot 
expect  the  children  to  do  this  when  we  find  the  teachers  unable. 
All  artists  know  how  unreasonable  it  is  to  expect  a  product  in 
drawing  from  children  if  they  receive  only  a  few  homeopathic 
doses  of  "  construction,"  "  representation  "  and  "  decoration  " 
a  few  minutes  a  week.  The  artist  knows  how  many  hours  of 
study  and  actual  delineation  must  be  given  before  even  an 
ordinary  amount  of  capacit}'  is  achieved. 

The  whole  subject,  however,  assumes  a  very  tlifferent 
aspect  when  drawing  is  used  as  one  of  the  chief  instruments  of 
impressing  the  organism  through  all  its  various  sense  channels, 
and  is  also  used  as  one  of  the  chief  instruments  of  imparting 
knowledge  in  all  its  various  branches,  being  a  mode  of  thought 
expression,  just  as  speech  and  writing  are  modes  of  thought 
expression. 

Meissonier  thought  drawing  one  of  the  bases  of  primary 
education,  and  said:  "To  what  heights  might  their  intelli- 
gences be  trained  by  simply  teaching  them  to  see.  I  would 
have  drawing  made  the  basis  of  education  in  all  schools.  It  i? 
the  only  language  that  can  express  all  things.  An  outline, 
even  if  ill-shaped,  conveys  a  more  exact  idea  of  a  thing  than  the 
most  harmonious  sentences  in  the  v.-orld.  Drawing  is  absolute 
truth,  and  the  language  of  truth  should  be  taught  everywhere." 


Drawing  Gjrrelatcd  With  Other  Studies 


57 


Growth  of 
ideas 


Ideas  must  be 


I  like  my  pupils  and  teachers  to  understand  the  distinction 
there  is  l)et\veen  sketching  from  nature  and  designing.  In  the 
one  case  we  put  down  facts,  and  in  the  other,  ideas.  There  is 
a  tendency  for  many  students  to  sketcli  onl)  from  nature.  We 
get  our  ideas  by  thinking  as  well.  More  time  shouUl  he  given, 
then,  to  dwelling  on  our  impressions  and  to  systematic  mental 
reproduction,  and  to  giving  expression  to  these  ideas  constantly 
by  designing  and  creative  work."^ 

To  get  good  art  work  we  must  have  good  ideas,  and  they 
must  be  tangible  and  concrete  ideas  that  we  can  instantly  revive 
at  will — that  will  recur  automatically  to  the  mind  when  needed. 
We  can  revive  impressions  of  things,  and  we  ought  to  be  able 
to  revive  ideas  in  the  mind.     They  must  be  placed  there  first. 

They  must  be  tirmly  locked  into  the  mental  faljric  by  the  sys-   locked  into 

"    .  ,  '       /•    1       1  1  1  the  mind 

tematic  performance  of  deeds,  not  only  once,  but  many  tmies. 

The  more  experience  I  have  the  more  I  can  embody  in  these 
ideas;  facility  of  expression  giving  accuracy  of  perception.  The 
more  I  know  of  history,  countries,  religions,  governments, 
climates,  habits,  the  more  of  value  I  can  put  in  my  work. 

We  must  take  in  things,  assimilate  them  and  form  ideas, 
and  then  we  will  have  an  outcome.  The  more  we  practice  this, 
the  more  facility  we  will  find  (jurselves  obtaining.  It  is  always 
possible  to  revive  ideas  in  the  mind  and  to  make  mental  move- 
ments and  co-ordinations.  The  more  we  do  this,  the  more 
vital  force  we  will  have,  the  more  deeply  we  will  realize  am' 
appreciate  things.  We  will  begin  to  understand  what-inspir ; 
tion  means. 


•"The  iitt-a  in  f.tcl  is  or^^ini/cil  as  ;i  sep.iratc  mental  cxisU-nre  iit  lite  cerehral  conviilu- 
tions,  being  for  UA  when  sii  or|^ani/.ed  lo  all  intcatn  anij  purposes  the  ohject,  and  may  he  ari>iised 
into  independent  activity.  Every  idea  is,  tliuN  representative,  the  abstract  of  many  sensation^, 
cfimprisin^  implicitly  more  than  it  displays  explicitly  ;  i!)  it  the  essential  Is  rmhotlirtl,  the  unes- 
Mrntial  suppressed  or  rejected;  it  is  n'>t  the  idea  of  any  particular  object  or  event,  but  the  ide.i  of 
every  object  or  event  of  a  particular  kind;  it  is  fundamentally  a  i^neralizalion  or  induction.  We 
may  justly  »ay,  then,  that  the  ideational  ner\-c  centers  ideali/e  or  ideate  our  sensory  perceptions; 
the  process  of  ideation,  like  other  processes  of  organic  evolution,  bein|(  one  of  proi^ressivc 
differentiation  and  intc^rration.-or  discrimination  of  the  unlike  iind  assimilation  of  the  like.** 
[Maudsley,  Physiolotfy  of  Mind,  l*agc  377. 


CHAPTER  Vm 

Nature  Studies — Rig;ht 
Methods 


Looking  at 
thinj^s  not 
enough 


Boy  inakint;  hirge  chart 
frt-ehund  with  brush  and 
ink  on  nianihi  paper.  All 
the  coinnifin  names  and 
technical  terms  are  lettered 
by  him  on  each  part. 


N  EDUCATIONAL  AUTHORITY 
lias  stated:  "The  only  way  to  teach 
nature  study  is  \\ith  no  course  laid  out, 
to  bring  in  \vhate\er  ma}'  lie  handy  and 
to  set  the  inipils  to  looking  at  it.  The 
]iupils  do  the  work.  They  see  the  thing 
and  e.xjilain  its  structure  and  its  mean- 
ing. The  exercise  should  not  be  too 
ong.  not  to  exceed  fifteen  minutes  at 
any  time.  And  above  all,  the  pupils 
should  never  look  upon  it  as  a  recita- 
tion, anil  there  should  never  be  an 
examination.  It  should  come  as  a  rest 
exercise,  whenever  the  pupils  become  restless.  Ten  minutes  a 
day  for  one  term  of  a  short,  sharj)  and  spicy  observation  upon 
plants,  for  example,  is  worth  more  than  a  whole  text-book  of 
botany." 

I  seriously  doubt  if  this  is  tlie  way.  I  question  if  they  see 
the  thing  simply  by  "  looking  "  at  it.  I  question  if  in  this  way 
they  can  comprehend  and  explain  its  structure  and  its  meaning, 
^lany  teachers  have  been  following  this  method  for  vears,  and 
even  adults  in  normal  schools  have  been  doing  it  for  a  series  of 
years,  Ijut  I  fail  to  find  much  product  or  result.  If  simply  looking 
at  things  will  accomplish  this,  why  is  it  that  so  few  people, 

(5S) 


Nature  Studies  59 

siKkleiily  askeil  wliose  licatl  is  on  a  two-cent  stamp,  can  answer 

correctly?  Are  not  stamps  seen  and  handleil  often?    1  have  tried 

this  and  other  experiments  on  thousands  of  teachers  for  many 

\ears.  and  I  know  people  do  not  learn  or  see  by  simply  looking. 

I  find  that  even  looking  at  and  handling  things  all  their 

lives  will  not  enable  some  jieople  to  know  the  shape  of  the  most 

familiar  forms.     Take  a  connnon  spoon,  for  instance.     Xot  one 

in  fifty  can  give  a  sure  answer  as 

to  how  its  handle    curves,    up  or  Familiarity 

down.     I  do  not  mean  that  thev  ""'    .  , 

knowleJge 

should  be  able  to  make  a  drawing 
of  it,  but  that  they  should  be  able 
to  know    actually    how  it  bends. 

# 

(See  diagram.)  From  the  concept  that  they  have,  or  have 
had,  of  the  spoon  in  their  minds  for  perhaps  years,  not  one 
among  fifty  will  answer  this  correctly.  Try  it  and  see.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  shape  of  the  nio.st  familiar  tools.  I  can  take 
people  and  prove  that  they  do  not  begin  to  know  the  shape  of 
their  own  most  familiar  hannner  or  saw  handle. 

Capacity  of  this  kind,  accurate  observation,  can  only  be 
made  aiUomatic  and  useful  by  art  methods,  by  practical  esthct-  nij^t^i^ 

ics,    by    organized    impressions    repeatedly    and    systematically  repeated 

,  1-11  •      ,        1         •        1        1      '       1  1  svstetn.itically 

l)erformed  untn  the  mmd  takes  m  tlie  desired  percepts  and  can 

form  the  concei)ts. 

But  giving  the  sensation  through  one  or  two  chaimeis  is 

sim|)ly  useless.     All  e.xperience  teaches  this;  it  is  better  to  make 

a  little  knowledge  vital  and  organic  b\  the  use  of  the  conscious 

activities  of  the  child.     The    child's    motor    centers    nuist    be 

trained  l)y  systematic  exercise  to  respond  instinctively  to  the 

stimulation  of  sight  ami  ttnich,  bv  a  i)roduct  that  compels  the   Let  .stuJy  have 

■  .  .  .  periiuiient 

e.xercise  of  skillful  manipidation.  It  is  this  performance  and  results. 
systematic  repetition  that  make  the  result  jjermancnt  and  valu- 
able. It  has  actually  been  found  that  children  have  been  made 
more  stupid,  <lull,  tireil  and  restless  by  too  much  looking  and 
handling,  without  using  the  spontaneous  activities  of  several 
other  motor  senses. 


60 


First  Principles 


^ 


We  must 

appreciate  the 
beauty  of 
nature 


Permanent 
organic 
impressions 
must  be  made 


I  maintain  that  through  art  methods  tangible  resttlts  can 
be  obtained  that  cause  the  child  to  take  pains,  that  arouse  its 
emotions  to  a  point  of  love  and  sympathy  on  account  of  the 
trouble  required  to  obtain  some  wished-for  product.  However 
trifling  or  poor  this  product  is,  the  thing  desired,  and  for  which 
we  must  scheme,  is  to  cause  the  child  to  re-create,  as  the  work 
of  its  hands  and  brain  and  et^ort,  the  beauty,  proportion, 
fitness,  grace,  etc.,  embodied  in  the  forms  studied.  The  child 
loves  its  product  for  the  trouble  it  has  caused. 

This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  habit  most  children  have  of 
saving  and  keeping  as  precious,  trifling  odds  and  ends  that  they 
have  made,  and  that  seem  to  have  value  to  them  because  they 
have  thought  over  them  and  worried  over  tliem.  Experience 
teaches  that  formal  collections  of  butterflies,  pressed  leaves, 
eggs,  etc.,  are  much  less  cherished,  and  usually  find  their  way 
to  the  waste  basket  at  some  period,  only  a  faint  and  feeble 
memory  Ijeing  retained  of  their  forms,  one  that  is  entirely  use- 
less so  far  as  regards  a  vital  love  of  nature  and  the  enabling  one 
to  enter  into  its  beauties.  We  will  not  get  love  for  nature  unless 
we  can  appreciate  the  beauty  of  nature.  This  must  be  culti- 
vated. Xo  douljt  there  are  some  impressions,  some  faint  traces 
of  these  things  left  in  the  adult  organism,  but  not  sufficient  to 
arouse  impulses  to  action  or  energetic  moving  emotion;  not 
enough  to  inspire  the  motor  reactions  that  end  in  deeds,  though 
often  enough  to  result  in  thinking  and  dreaming,  and  some- 
times wishing. 

Yet,  we  can  have  a  right  return  from  nature  study  if  we 
make  the  right  use  of  our  opportunities.  All  the  rambles, 
walks  and  talks  of  ten  teachers,  all  the  looking  and  handling,  are 
useless  for  the  purpose  of  nature  teaching,  unless  the  impres- 
sions and  information  are  made  organic  \)\  the  performance  of 
work  that  compels  systematic  reaction  of  the  motor  centers  to 
yield  a  product,  this  being  the  outward,  concrete  sign  of  the 
internal  structure  or  thought  fabric.  So  much  of  the  one  is 
shown  by  so  much  of  the  other. 

There  is  something  dense  in  the  mind  of  the  average  child 


Nature  Studies 


61 


Illustration  33 


Druwing  from  Nature 


that  must  l)e  overcome  hy  this  systematic  work.  There  is  a 
mental  inertia,  if  yon  will,  or  wh.it  miij^ht  he  called  an  infirmity 
of  piirpr)se.  that  has  to  be  conquered  hefore  the  union  of  thoupfht 
and  action  can  he  made  automatic  and  comi)lete.  Hence,  mere 
looking,'  at  and  handliufj  objects  will  not  sjive  the  best  results 
desired  in  nature  study.  And.  in  proof  of  this,  we  fmd  that  most 
school  work  of  this  kind  tloes  not  produce  the  expected  results. 
Put  the  methods  pointed  out  in  this  work  do  j)roduce  the 
desiretl  results  in  every  case.  The  children  ^et  a  lovinef  recojj- 
nition  of  things,  an<l  this  arouses  that  energetic  disposition  to 
perform  appropriate  actions  which  is  the  natural  state  of  the 
alert  and  active  normal  child. 

It  is  dreadful  to  see  children,  as  the_\  grow  up  through  the 
primary,  secondary  and  grammar  grades  of  a  school  into  the 
high    school,    becoming   more    restless   and    more    inditTerent 


62 


First  Principles 


Effect  on  healtli 
of  improper 
methods 


■■•■  I — 


to  so  many  of  the  essentialities,  wlien.  if  properly  trained,  they 
should  lia\e  Ijecome  more  energetic,  and  disposed  to  carry  on 
their  work  with  the  same  energy  they  make  use  of  in  their  play 
and  amusement.  I  am  afraid  the  element  of  "  fun,"  with  a 
number  of  other  valuable  fundamentals,  is  gratlually  crushed 
out  by  existing  scliool  methods. 

.\'()  truthful  and  thoughtful  teacher  can  help  but  see  also 
that  many  physical  ills  result  from  the  present  methods  of  train- 
ing. ]\Iany  children  that  are  chubl^y  and  healthy  and  usually 
have  fine  color  on  entering  school,  are  pale,  narrow  chested, 
1  feeble,  spectacled,  cadaverous  and  pimple  faced,  when  they  have 
finished  the  school  course.  By  damaging  the  liody  we,  in  a 
measure,  damage  the  mind.  After  all,  the  body  is  the  chief 
fabric.  To  this  our  best  care  should  be  given.  The  body,  its 
-  movements,  and  its  productions,  are  the  outward  fruits  or  signs 
of  the   "  inner  temple." 

The  idle  curiosity  e.xcited-  by  things  must  he  cherished  and 
nourished  until  it  l^ecomes  attention.  Inspiration  from  things 
means  energy,  —  physical,  mental  and  spiritual  energy.  We 
must  assimilate  and  accumulate  this  energy.  If  God  speaks  at 
all  (and  who  tloubts  it?), Pie  speaks  through  His  works.  "  There 
are  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brook,  sermons  in 
stones,  and  good  in  everything  "  (Shakespeare).  Ought  we 
not  to  imderstand  these  tongues,  read  these  books  and  under- 
stand these  sermons?  Ought  we  not  to  get  the  good  from 
everything?  We  nuist,  as  Emerson  says,  "  Bend  to  the  persua- 
sion llowing  to  us  from  every  normal  thing  entreating  us  to  be 
its  tongue  to  the  heart  of  man,  to  teach  a  besotted  world  how 
passing  fair  is  wisdom." 

\\'e  must  make    our    children    realize  the  divinitv  that  is 

planted  in  things.     There  is  a  great  desire  and  tendencv  in  some 
Beauty  aiiJ  . 

mystery  of  quarters  to  lift  the  children  above  the  commonplace.     Should 

common  things    .^^.^  ^^^^  rather,  make  them  so  familiar  with  things  that  even  the 

mud  and  dirt  and  weeds  will  seem  filled  with  beautv  and  mys- 

ter}'?     Should  we  not  open  their  mental  eyes,  the  eye  of  the 

understanding,    to    the    beauty    and    splendor  of  the  smallest 


Nature  Studies 


63 


created  atom?  Make  them  realize  tlie  force  that  is  in  every 
common  thin;^,  iliat  liolds  to>jfctlier  eacli  tlower  and  leaf  and 
stone;  make  them  realize  that  "  matter  and  s])irit  are  two  sides 
of  one  fact." 

\\'e  are  compelled  to  he  with  matter  in  this  world.  We  Divine  energy 
cannot  lift  the  children  above  the  commonplace.  Instead,  we  '"matter 
shonld  thrust  their  heads  well  into  it  until  they  recognize  their 
Mother  Xature.  There  is  an  irresistible  impulse,  which  is  like 
the  tug  of  gravity,  that  forces  us  sometimes  against  our  will,  to 
be  close  to  facts  and  things.  Let  us  be  obedient  and  bend  to 
the  divine  energv.  Then  we  can  grai'ually  take  in  the  idea,  so 
beautifully  expressed  by  Ilishop  Kecnc.  that  "  mintcr  is  the 
stairwav  by  which  the  soul  mounts  to  (lod." 

The  desire  for  nature  study  is  constantly  increasing  ami  is 

lieginning  to  be  apj^reciated  among  teachers.      It  is  the  method 

of  studying  nature  that  must  now  l>e  improvcil.     When  we  can 

learn,  understand  and  make  use  of  the  lessons  with  which  nature 

teems,    the    new   education     will     indeed    have    made   a    great 

advance.     This    means   much    more    than   merely   looking  at 

things,  though  that  is  better  than  only  reading  about  them.     A 

recent  catalogue  of  a  summer  school  contained  a  picture  of  a 

professor  of  botany  dissecting  a  plant  while  the  class  looked  i>n. 

He  was  learning  something  and  receiving  an  actual  impression 

through  the  touch  sense  and    the     muscular    sense,   as  well  as 

through  the  visicjn,  but  the  members  of  the  class  were  getting 

only  a  slight  visual  and  auditory  impression  of  the  plant  and  of 

its  parts  (for  I  presume  the  profe.ssor  spoke)  that  they  would 

,  X-         -f         •       f    1         .         1      1     i-  I     i         1  Improved 

.soon  forget,      .now  if  each  of  the  class  had  dissecteil  tiie  plant    ,„i.ti,odsof 

and  in  addition  to  the  visual  and  auditory  impression,  had  m.ide  study  neeJeJ 
an  impression  through  the  muscular  and  touch  sense  and  then 
had  reinforced  these  impressions  by  making  diagrams  and  draw- 
ings of  the  various  parts,  attaching  their  respective  names  to 
each  part,  fust  from  the  plant  and  then  from  memory,  a  more 
permanent  impression  would  have  been  made.  It  is  the  per- 
lormance  of  actions  through  a  mnnber  i>f  the  modes  of  expres- 
sion that  calls  forth  powers  of  perce])ti<in  ;uid  c<incei)tii)n  .md 


64 


First  Principles 


Universal  use 
of  new  moJes 
of  expression 


expression,  and  makes  so  vivid  an  impression  on  the  bram  as 
never  to  he  forgotten. 

The  power  of  imitation  and  suggestion,  the  abihty  to  draw, 
to  model  and  carve  natural  objects,  is  inherent  and  only  needs 
to  be  properly  trained  to  become  almost  as  universal  a  mode  of 
thought  expression  as  verljal  or  written  words.  The  succeed- 
ing books  of  this  work  afford  a  partial  insight  into  the  methods 
of  developing  and  training  these  forms  of  expression. 


A  Touch  of  N;iturc 


BOOK  TWO 

Manual-Training 
Drawing 


Hi 


"am 


'"^l 


"""T^ 


Original  Dtrsi^ns  by  Gnunmur  Grade  Cluldix-a 


"The  inslantaiicous  juUgiiltnts  nl  Ihc  disUncc,  Ihe  pnsitioii,  the  si/.c,  the  fii;un- of  object*,  which  aicoinpanj 
our  visual  sensations,  are  not  consciously  made,  nor  arc  Ihey  put  in  lo;,'ical  fiirin;  in  fact,  all  the  labors  of  philoso- 
phers hitherto  have  not  iK'en  sufficient  to  discover  and  explain  the  process  by  which  we  acquiri:  thein— to  set  forth 
explicitly  the  pn'inises,  the  reasonini;,  and  the  conclusions  which  are  implicit  in  thein."—[Maudsley,  Physiolo^'V 
of  the  Mind,  pace  Ji. 

"The  irrcat  source  of  happiness  is  to  be  found  in  the  exercise  of  tilents,  and  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  is  when 
the  ingenuity  i>f  the  mind  is  exercised  in  the  dextrous  employment  f>f  the  h  inds."— [Sir  Charles  ndl. 


m 


^ 


SM^J. 


3 


Mo.lil-.  ..r  l.e.if  lr>n.n 


H 

O 
■JO 

UJ 

(- 
< 

a. 


K   = 


to  jj 

I  i 


3   ^    y 


JZ.     3 


rr  "3 


i:  -^ 


(66) 


Illustration  40 


Some  Primary  Exercises 


CHAPTER  I 

Preliminary  Considerations 
in  Manual-Training- 
Drawings 


rllE  FOLLOWIXc;  Ml'TllODS  arc  a.lvanced  with  cunrtdence, 
in  view  of  the   fact   that    tlierc   is  a  general    reaction   against   the 
printed    copybook    systems  of  drawing    already  described.       The 
imsatisfactory  character  of  such  jjiireiy  artificial,  nay,  even  nieclian- 
ical  aids  to  the  teacher,  is  now  generally  ai)parent,  ami  many  teachers  and 
others  interested,  feeling  this  lack  of  results  and  deficiencies  of  methods,  are 
already  seeking  better  ways. 

Many  artists  are  also  i)OC((ming  intercste<l  in  the  education  ui  clnldren 
in  art  work,  and  are  practically  unanimous  in  their  condemnation  of  the  old 
systems.  Indeed,  it  is  iiardly  possible  tt)  name  an  artist  of  any  im|)ortance 
who  agrees  with  the  systems  in  general  use.  Artists,  usually,  are  not  much 
engaged  in  public  affairs,  but  when  one  of  them  does  look  into  the  usual 
methods  of  education,  it  is  generally  with  an  e.xjiression  of  amazement 
at  the  feebleness  and  utter  inutility  of  the  art  instruction  received.     Artists 

(67) 


6S 


Manual- Training  Drawing 


are  beginning  to  be  more  interested  in  the  sulDJect,  and  several  voices  have 
of  late  been  hfted  up  in  not  uncertain  tones,  advocating  a  change  to  rational 
ways  of  work  that  will  produce  useful  results. 

^^'hen  artists  are  spoken  of  in  this  connection,  real  ones  are  meant — 
those  who  actually  produce  art  work.  I  do  not  mean  those  teachers  of  art 
or  of  drawing,  who  have  never  producetl  a  statue,  a  model,  or  a  picture. 
Many  of  these,  unfortunately,  are  engaged  in  teaching  the  artificial  systems 
complained  about,  and  in  many  cases  they  have  been  trained  in  normal  art 
schools  expressly  for  that  kind  of  work.  Thev  never  had  anv  real  knowl- 
edge of  art  work,  and  their  products  are  destitute  of  value,  being  vitiated 
by  all  the  intricate  inanities  of  the  systems  indicated.  Artists  must,  ere 
long,  combine  against  the  errors  in  education  mentioned,  and  it  is  only 
because  of  ignorance  of  actual  school  j^rocesses  that  the\'  ha\'e  not  been 
already  aroused.  Surely,  their  judgment  should  be  consulted  as  to  what  is 
best  to  do,  even  if  they  are  not  teachers.  Some  of  them  are  sufificiently 
interested  to  condemn  false  work,  and  to  suggest  improvements.  I  have 
had  many  artists  visit  my  schools,  and  ha\'e  never  yet  found  any  to  object  to 
any  part  of  the  work,  as  contrasted  with  the  old  methods.     They  usually 


lllU';tration  u 


First  Exercise,  Manuul-Traininir  Drawing 


Illustration  42 


Preliminary  G}nsi<leraticns 


69 


M.iiiii  il   I  r, lining   Ivxeriisi's 
These  grammar  grade  pupils  are  tr.iinctt  l>y  the  nrdinary  teacher 


endorse  even  (he  most  radical  changes  we  have  made — chaiifjcs  that  are  the 
result  of  experiment — from  the  standpoint  of  the  artist,  not  of  the  teacher. 

It  is  to  be  distinctly  understood  by  artists  and  art  teachers  who  read 
these  chni)ters  on  "drill"  work,  that  these  exercises  are  not  intended  to  take 
the  place  of  art  teachinjjf  oi  various  other  forms — tlie  drawing  from  objects, 
the  study  of  perspective  (in  its  right  place),  the  use  of  color.  light  and  sliade, 
etc.  But  the  object  of  tliese  exercises  is  for  the  tlefinite  ])nrpose  of  su])ple- 
menting  art  work  in  all  directions,  and  ])ri!naril\-  for  giving  fundamental  skill 
and  dexterity  to  the  hand  as  an  instrument.  .\il  art  teachers  can  realize  the 
value  of  a  ready  hand  prompt  to  obey  the  miinl.  one  tliat  by  training  is 
thoroughly  co-ordinated  to  perform  all  movements  with  facility  as  soon  as 
thought.  Especially  is  this  a])i)reciated  if  time  is  .saved,  and  certain 
qualities — such  as  balance,  proportion,  magnitiules.  space  relations,  etc., 
are  mailc  automatic  (see  page  77)  and.  at  the  same  time,  tlie  mind  is  stored 
with  all  the  conmion  and  conventional  forms  and  unit>  of  design  i)f  the  best 
periods  and  of  the  ditYerent  styles  or  schools  of  art. 

Teachers  must  realize  also  that  only  a  very  short  time  need  be  given  to 
this  drill  work,  about  ten  minutes  each  lesson,  provided  it  starts  at  the  nas- 
cent or  incipient  perioij  of  chiltih 1.     Also,  th.it  in  all  cases,  (he  drill  work 


70 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


in  delineation  is  accompanied  by  form  work  on  paper,  in  clay  modelling  from 
forms,  and  (if  children  are  not  too  young)  by  wood  carving  of  various  forms. 
Of  course,  if  children  or  adults  have  passed  the  nascent  period  for  this  work, 
extra  time  must  he  gix-en  to  acquiring  the  desired  facility:  for  few  can  be 
found  now  to  dispute  the  desirability  of  real  manual  dexterity  for  each  hand 
for  all  boys  and  girls  whatever  their  future  life  may  be,  apart  from  the  idea  of 
draw  ing  as  a  mode  of  thought  expression  for  educational  purposes,  and  as  a 
means  of  correlating  all  the  various  studies.  I  do  not  think  a  psychologist 
can  now  be  found  who  will  not  strenuously  advocate  real  drawing  and  proper 
manual  training  as  one  of  the  chief  means  to  reinforce  "knowledge."  and  to 
make  it  "wisdom."  They  will  advocate  it  as  a  means — through  motor  move- 
ments and  touch  sensations —  of  awakening  and  making  still  more  alert  the 
brain,  which  is  far  too  frequently  made  dull  and  toriiid  Ijy  too  much  verbal 
memorizing,  too  much  ])rint.  too  much  "telling."  and  too  little  doing. 

The  drill  forms  in  delineation,  then,  are  for  the  purpose  of  getting  auto- 
matic facilit}'  for  motor  centers  of  the  hand,  just  as  all  other  modes  of 
expression  require  automatic  facility,  as  in  speech,  writing,  singing,  playing 
on  instruments,  etc.  A  course  of  this  drill  work  alone  is  folly,  but  accom- 
panied" by  the  other  forms  of  art  work  and    nature  study,  is  of  inestimable 


Illustration  45 


Ambidextrous  Co-ordinations  in  Four  Directions 


Illustration  1 1 


Preliminary  Gsnsiderations 


71 


Frt'c  Hand  Drawing 
Grammar  ^radc  pupils  making  original  designs 


educational  value.  The  forms  have  been  arranged  in  tlic  order  of  their 
difficidty,  not  in  the  logical  order.  First,  easy  line  exercises  are  given,  then 
simple  units  of  design,  then  complex  exercises  and  units  of  design,  and 
so  on. 

It  is  not  expected  to  at  once  overcome  all  the  evil  effects  resulting  from 
art  instruction  having  been  left  so  long  in  the  hands  of  mere  book  publishing 
concerns  and  their  agents,  but  I  do  expect  to  let  in  some  light  on  the  subject. 
Especially  do  I  expect  to  see  the  artists,  and  peojile  wiio  are  authorities  on 
these  matters,  become  interested  in  the  (|uestioii  and  to  see  them  earnest 
advocates  of  newer  and  better  methods.  If  this  interest  is  once  aroused,  we 
need  have  no   fear  as  to  what  will  ensue. 

T^ie  Tivo  Kinds  of  Draivmg. — Many  will  think  that  too  much 
time  and  space  lia\e  been  given  in  tins  l)ook  tf)  the  manual-training  drawing 
and  drill  work,  at  the  expense  of  the  equally  important  work  of  drawing 
from  nature  am!  art  forms.  This  has  been  done  intentionally.  The  value 
of  drawing  as  manual  tr.iim'ng.  and  of  manual  training  to  right  and  good 
drawing,  has  not  been  surticieiitly  emphasized  in  the  past.  Xo  one  ailvocatcs 
more  strongly  than  I  the  importance  of  drawing  from  nature  and  art  forms, 
but  I  also  recognize  the  importance  of  manual  training  an.l  drill  work  as 


72  Manual-Training  Drawing 

elementary  to  and  supreme  for  the  l^est  results  m  art  work  and  nature  study. 
For  this  reason  I  have  given  the  manual  training  part  of  drawing  in  con- 
siderable detail. 

The  distinction  usually  made  between  the  manual  training  idea  and 
art  work  is  a  false  one.  They  are  two  sides  of  one  fact,  equally  important 
and  equally  worthy  of  receiving  all  possible  care  and  attention. 

In  devising  the  series  of  drill  forms  in  manual-training  drawing  given 
in  this  work,  it  should  be  distinctly  understood  that  any  forms  or 
like  characters  can  be  used.  I  am  aware  that  the  moment  set  things  are 
suggested  as  necessary,  routine  will  begin.  The  teacher  should  be  con- 
stantlv  on  the  lookout  for  new  forms.  In  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  false 
systems  grow  out  of  a  rigid  adherence  to  set  forms  and  methods  of  work. 
Teachers  must  change  and  modify  their  instruction  in  accordance  with  indi- 
vidual needs  and  environment.  The  forms  given  are  simply  the  result  of 
the  experience  of  one  person,  and,  though  proved  to  be  of  value  by  their  use 
m  large  classes,  may  be  improved  upon  by  the  experience  of  others. 


Illustration  45 


First  Exercises.  Primary  School,  Colored  Children 


Preliminary  Considerations 


73 


Illustration  46 


Free  Miind  Work  lor  Vtr}-  Young  Chlltlrvn 


Paper. —  One  of  the  hest  kinds  of  paper  10  use  for  practice  work  in 
(Irawin-^  and  for  drill  work  is  the  crnnnion  nianila  paper,  (let  the  light 
tints,  as  they  arc  the  best  for  drawing,  although  any  kind  can  he  employed, 
the  kind  that  weighs  36  pounds  per  ream,  costing  about  $3.  is  here  sug- 
gesteil.     The  sheets  can  be  cut  in  half,  giving  the  liberal  size  of  iS  by  J4 


74  Manual-Training;  Drawing 

inches.  This  will  cover  the  top  of  any  orchnary  desk  or  table,  and  as  it  occupies 
all  the  space  in  front  of  the  pupil,  the  hands  can  move  with  freedom  over  the 
whole  sheet.  I  use  this  paper  because  it  is  very  cheap  and  quite  as  good 
as  the  white  drawing  papers  for  practice  purposes.  It  can  be  purchased 
with  any  kind  of  texture,  glazed  or  rough.  Manila  paper  is  good,  even  for 
designing  and  making  of  patterns,  on  account  of  its  texture,  strength  and 
durability. 

For  practice  purposes  I  ha\-e  the  children  draw  on  both  sides.  Usually 
we  cover  the  paper  all  over  man>-  times  with  the  drill  forms.  This  paper 
also  takes  India  ink,  or  the  common  black  inks;  of  course  it  is  not  quite  so 
good  for  color  work  as  the  white  paper.  I  have  settled  on  this  paper  after 
trying  many  other  kinds. 

Pencils —  No  Rubber. — Ordinary  school  lead  pencils  will  do  for  drill 
purposes;  the  best  kind  is  a  good,  medium-soft  pencil.  Do  not  allow 
rubbers  to  be  used;  it  simply  wa.stes  time,  while  no  good  is  accomplished.  It 
is,  in  fact,  very  important  to  break  pupils  of  this  habit  of  using  rubber. 
Some  children,  and  even  adults,  seem  to  think  that  the  first  marks  must  be 
rubbed  off  in  any  case.  In  some  schools,  it  seems  impossible  for  the  pupils 
to  draw  unless  they  have  a  piece  of  rubber  in  the  left  hand. 

The  habit  must  be  formed  of  putting  down  the  required  touches  at  one 
touch  to  stay.  This  can  readily  be  done  and  gives  greater  freedom  and 
accuracy  than  when  feeble  tentative  touches  are  made,  with  the  idea  in  the 
mind  that  they  must  be  changed  several  times  before  they  can  be  right. 


Illustration  47 


CHAPTER  II 

Elementary 
Drill  Forms  * 


THIS  INSTRUCTION  and  the  exercises  in  drill  work  can  be 
given  by  the  teacher  to  a  large  niunber  of  pnpils  at  once.  This  will 
save  time  and  talking  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  It  is  advisable 
at  intervals  to  call  the  attention  of  the  whole  class  to  certain  facts. 
The  most  convenient  way  to  do  this  is  to  ring  a  bell,  when  ail  the  pupils 
cease  working  and  can  listen  to  the  teacher's  directions.  Pupils  working 
at  desks  on  paper  can  make  forms  reduced  in  size  from  blackboard  work. 
The  series  of  marginal  forms  here  given  are  intended  to  illustrate  a  graded 
set  of  lessons.  A  large  number  of  forms  are  given,  so  that  tlie  teacher  may 
make  a  judicious  selection  therefrom.  Bright  teachers  usually  make  ntmi- 
bers  of  other  forms,  and  in  a  very  short  time  have  a  collection  of  their  own. 
I  like  my  pupils  to  forget  all  they  have  learned  and  studied  of  other  systems, 
for  the  time  being.  New  ])upils,  those  who  have  never  received  any 
instruction  in  drawing,  while  they  may  be  very  l)ackward  witii  hand  train- 
ing, are  more  plial)Ie  and  grasp  the  forms  very  readily,  ])erhaps  more  readily 
than  those  who  liave  been  trained  in  other  ilirections  and  who  have  varit)us 
faults  to  correct:  especially  those  who  have  never  been  taught  to  make  a 
firm,  clear,  decided  line  with  a  single  stroke,  but  have  been  taught  to  dot 
their  lines  or  to  lightly  sketch    their    lines,     making    a    scries  of  tentative 


•AH  of  the  cuU,  csccptinjf  a  Uw-  cf  lln-  most  i-nniplcx  ones,  h-ivc  !>c€n  »lr:iwn  l>y  cliiltlrcn. 

(75) 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawing 


Free  llaiiU  Exercises  in  Straij^ht  I.ines 


touches,  witli  the  intention,  later  on,  of  making  the  marks  or  strokes  better. 
In  the  old-fashioned  drawing  methods,  this  is  called  "lining  in."  No  one 
can  think  for  a  moment  without  realizing  how  stupid  it  is  to  make  several 
attempts  or  to  work  in  that  way,  when,  with  very  little  practice,  firm,  clear 
touches  can  he  made  from  the  start. 

To  Get  (Automatic  Facility, — 1  have  repeatedly  spoken  of 
the  desirability  of  facility  in  the  beginning.  These  first  exer- 
cises are  chielly  for  the  purpose  of  aci|uiring  facility, — actual  manual 
training,  the  power  to  make  the  hand  obey  the  dictates  of  the  mind,  to 
make  the  hand  obedient  to  the  will.  It  does  not  matter  in  the  beeinnina" 
how  crudely  the  pupil  makes  the  forms.  Habit  and  repetition  will  correct 
that.  Give  all  the  attention  in  the  beginning  to  position,  distance 
movement,  and  the  like. 

The  pupil  should  learn  to  draw  as  automatically  as  he  learns  to  write. 


Elementary  Drill  Forms  77 

Some  of  the  written  letters  of  the  alphal>ct  are  exceediniily  complex, 
emijotlyiiig  (lifticult  compound  curves,  and  {^rowing  still  more  difficult  when 
combined  with  other  letters  to  form  a  word.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
dullest  pupil,  by  constant  practice,  makes  each  one  of  these  complex  charac- 
ters unconsciously.  The  movements  of  the  hand  in  writing  are  automatic. 
\\'hen  the  pupil  desires  to  express  himself  in  words  or  writing,  he  is  not 
obliged  to  "'lightly  sketch"  or  "line  in"  the  different  characters  or  letters. 
His  mind  is  occupied  with  the  idea  he  wishes  to  express  upon  the  paper,  and 
his  hand  moves  automatically,  without  a  thought  being  given  to  the  different 
positions  required  to  form  the  lines  and  curves  which  go  to  make  up  the 
written  word.* 

Just  so  it  must  be  in  learning  to  draw.  The  different  movetnents  must 
be  practiced  till  they  are  drawn  with  as  little  effort  and  as  unconsciously  as 
are  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Xo  special  talent  or  genius  is  necessary  in 
order  to  be  able  to  write  well.  The  same  is  true  of  lirawing,  in  the  mere 
acquisition  of  the  mechanical  part  of  the  work.  Talent  and  genius  are 
required  for  the  higher  grades  of  design  and  creative  work,  just  as  talent 
and  genius  arc  required  to  express  great  thoughts  in  written  words. 

The  First  Exercise  Is  the  Circle.  — it  should  be  drawn  with  the 
right  hand  directly  in  front  (lllus.  40,  41,  and  49).  Let  the  circle 
be  about  six  inches  in  diameter.  Do  not  make  the  circles 
too  large  in  the  beginning,  but  later  on  they  can  be  made  of 
all    sizes — as    large    as    the    arm     can     swceji    or    as     the    blackboard 


•  "  It  is  ca«y  10  perceive  why  will  ciin  only  determine  the  rrjru//  when  it  dictale*  nn  act,  anj  cannot  determine 
the  action  of  a  particular  muscle,  or  the  combined  actions  of  certain  muscles  which  have  not  acted  tnnelher  before. 
AM  it  does  is  to  Itt  loose,  as  it  were,  the  proiter  ajjency  in  the  motor  center;  and  this  is  done  by  willing:  the  event,  which 
it  i«  enabled  to  do  by  means  of  th.--  proper  motor  inluilion.  When  I  will  to  utter  a  certain  word,  I  w  ill  the  evinl.  the 
complex  articulating;  movements  oeing  possible  to  nie  only  throu^jh  the  medium  of  the  projx-r  motor  intuition.  The 
impulse  Jiliin  the  special  molor  intuition  conslilules  the  particular  volition.  .\  voluntary  movement  is  truly  a  reflex 
•ct  in  the  cortical  centers  of  the  brain;  diflerinK  from  the  lower  rellex  movements  in  these  circuinslances—tir»t, 
that  it  does  not  immediately  ftdlow  the  stimulus,  hut  is  caused  by  the  excitation  I'f  many  ass<H'ia(ed  sensory  residua 
which  have  bi'en  laid  up  in  consequence  c»f  former  experiences;  and.  secondU,  that  it  contains  or  evinces  a  dis- 
tinct adaptation  In  an  end  01  purpose,  hy  reason  of  the  excitation  of  associated  motor  residua  which  have  been 
or)rani/ed  effects  of  former  adjustments.  If  the  result  wishi-d  is  «  new,  unfamiliar  one,  no  residua  thereof  rn>m 
previous  experiences  exislin|(  in  the  motor  centers,  then  the  will  is  unet|ual  to  the  accomplishment  of  It;  there  is 
not  an  exact  and  deAnilc  idea  of  the  end  to  be  effected,  the  necessary  motor  inluilion  beinif  «anlin(!.  After  r«. 
pealed  trials,  the  desired  skill  is  (irmly  acquired,  and  the  movement  is  thenceforth  automatic,  the  motor  intuition 
having  been  i;nidually  orifanijed  in  the  proper  nervous  centers  ;  the  result  storid  up  strictly  corresponds  with  that 
which  in  other  nervous  centers  we  descrilu:  as  «/<»(rrl<(  id<  a.  It  is  probable  thai  the  so  called  motor  centers  In  the 
cerebral  convf>lulions  are  re  illy  the  centers  of  these  molor  intuitions  ;  in  olher  words,  Ihey  are  the  centers  in  which 
the  sultordinale  molor  center*  act  upon  consciousness,  and  they  thus  constitute  the  physiolo|{lcal  agency  of 
Tolontary  movements."— [  Maodiley,  Physiolouy  of  the  Mind,  pajjes 46<h'<7- 


78  Manual-Training-  Drawing 

will  allow.     This  graded  series  of  exercises,  the  result  of  20  years'  experi- 
ence, has  enabled  me  to  decide  upon  certain  sizes  that  are  more  convenient 

and  more  adapted  for  school  purposes  than  others. 
Illustration  40  The  circle  should  be  drawn  on  a  level  with  the  chin. 

All  children  show  a  disposition  to  make  it  above 
their  heads,  to  reach  upward — a  fact  of  much  inter- 
est to  psychologists  and  physiologists.    Adults  who 
have  never    had    an\-  training    usually  make  their 
circles  too  low  on  the  board,  and  aged  people  make 
them  quite  low — another  interesting  fact.     For  our 
purpose     and     convenience,  we    make    the     circle 
directly  in  front,  just  a  little  below  the  eye.      See 
that  the  body  is  quite  erect,  and  the  head  level,  and 
that  the  hands  swing    freely  around  the  circle  many  times.     Then,  with  the 
left  hand  draw  a  circle  by  the  side  of  the  first  one  (Illus.  41).    Practice  swing- 
ing the  hand  around  until  the  line  flows  freely. 

Do  not  allow  the  body  to  sway  or  swing  in  doing  this,  but  see  that  the 
pupil  inoves  the  arm  entirely  free  from  the  body.  The  circle  is  essentially 
an  arm  movement.  Let  there  be  an  easy  swing  of  the  arm  from  the  shoul- 
der, keeping  the  remainder  of  the  body  in  an  easy,  comfortalile  position,  and 
carefully  avoiding  rigidity  of  the  muscles — no  tight  grip  of  the  chalk.  Every 
movement  must  be  as  easy,  free  and  graceful  as  possible. 

-At  first  there  is  a  tendency  to  put  the  face  close  to  the  blackboard  sur- 
face, and  to  turn  the  head  to  one  side.  Resist  these  desires  and  keep  up  the 
practice  till  the  movement  is  free  and  easy.  Ultimately  all  these  movements 
should  liecome  automatic,  or  he  made  \\ithout  conscious  attention  or  exer- 
cise of  the  mind.     Of  course  this  cannot  be  expected  immediately. 

The  next  step  will  be  to  take  a  piece  of  chalk  in  each  hand  and  draw 
over  the  same  circle  with  both  hands  at  once  Illns.  41).  This 
movement  w.'.l  l)c  rather  diftTcult,  but  in  a  minute  or  two  the  co- 
ordination is  made  and  it  becomes  easy.  This  accomplished,  the  pupil  must 
be  trained  to  swing  both  hands  to  the  right,  then  to  the  left,  then  in  opposite 
directions,  letting  each  hand  go  around  the  circle  in  a  direction  opposite  to 
that  followed  by  the  other  (lllus.  45).  This  last  movement  is  much  more 
difficult,  Init  in  a  few  minutes  it  is  usually  conquered  by  even  the  smallest 
children.     These  six  movements  are  to  be  repeated  as  drill  forms  contin- 


Elementary  Drill  Forms  79 

ually,  just  as  the  five-fingfcr  exercises  arc  practiced  on  the  piano.  Do  not 
pay  nuicii  attention  to  the  accuracy  of  tiic  circle.  It  doesn't  matter  iiow 
crude  it  is  in  the  beginning,  facility  being  the  first  thing  desired.  Many 
children  in  a  very  sliort  time  can  swing  perfect  circles  frequently  with  each 
hand. 

Stra.ight  Lines. — Tlie  next  exercise  will  be  the  making  of  straight  lines 
for  the  purpose  of  gaining  facility  in  this  movement.  The  pupil,  standing 
in  the  same  position  as  before,  must  swing  the  hand  up  and  down  vertically, 
making  a  line  about  i8  inches  in  length.  In  doing  this,  pay  especial  atten- 
tion to  the  position  of  the  body.  See  that  it  is  erect  all  the  time  and  that 
only  the  hand  and  arm  move.  Do  not  allow  the  body  to  wave  back  and 
forth  as  the  hand  moves  up  and  down.  Try  to  make  the  hand  independent. 
Beginners  will  invariably  sway  the  body  at  first.  In  teaching  a  large  class, 
say  12  or  20.  on  tlie  blackboard,  it  is  amusing  to  see  the  movements  some  of 
the  imtrained  pupils  make.  This  is  very  readily  overcome,  however,  by 
drawing  their  attention  to  it,  and  in  a  minute  or  two  the  hands  can  be  made 
to  swing  freely,  with  every  figure  quite  erect,  the  heads  level  and  at  tlie  right 
distance  from  the  board. 

A  second  line  can  now  be  made  in  the  horizontal  direction,  crossing  the 
first,  the  hand  being  kept  in  the  same  pcjsition,  illustration  50 
and   allow   it  to  swing  freely  from   the  right  to  1 ; 

the  left,  back  and  forth,  till  facility  is  acquired  j  /^ 

in    this    movement.    The    movements    can    be  !         ^/ 

followed    with    the    drawing    of  the    diagonal  • 

lines,  also  continued  until  the  movements  are 
made  with  ease  in  any  direction  (IIlus.  48  and 
50).  Invariably,  in  one  or  two  places,  lack 
of  co-ordination  will  be  felt  ami  the  line  will 
be  crooked  and  uneven,  but  very  little  repetition 
will  overcome  these  defects. 

It  is  to  acquire  facility  and  control,  and  to  get  the  actual  structural  con- 
nection and  harmony  of  relation  between  the  hand  and  the  brain,  that  we 
make  these  consecutive  movements  all  around  the  circle,  not  with  one  hand 
only,  but  with  each  hand.  Especial  care  must  be  given  to  the  left  haml, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  its  u.se  with  the  majority  of  people.  But  with  the 
young  the  left  hand  can  be  made  to  work  with  as  much  freedom  as  the  right, 


80 

Illustration  %! 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


Drill  Movements  and  Spiruls  for  Primary  Children 
The  forms  arc  made  with  either  hand 


in  ;i  \cT_\-  shoi-l  time,  and  I  see  no  reason  wli\'  any  of  us  should  not  have  as 
mucli  control  and  power  over  the  left  hand  as  we  have  over  the  right. 
Crudel}-  speaking,  we  have  two  brains,  a  hemisphere  for  each  hand,  and  only 
a  very  dull  person  will  think  it  necessary  to  confine  himself  to  the  use  of  one. 
Usually,  in  the  beginning,  a  little  more  time  must  be  given  to  left-hand  work 
on  account  of  the  moveinents  being  slower  and  more  awkward  through  lack 
of  use.  (See  chapter  W.  page  50,  Book  One.) 

The  Double  Loop  (lllus.  52). — In  making  this  form,  let  it  he 
about  12  inches  in  length.  Very  few  beginners  can  draw  it  so  that  it  will, 
be  erect.  Usually  the  force  of  the  writing  haljit  asserts  itself  and  a  great 
many  pupils  tip  this  form  to  the  right,  finding  it  almost  impossible  to  make 
it  vertical  in  the  beginning.     I  ha\c  a  series  of  exercises  expressly  for  the 


Elementary  Drill  Forms 


5t 


purposes  of  overcoming  the  writing  hal)it — the  disposition  to  slope  forms  to 
the  right.  The  double  loop  is  one  of  them,  .\llo\v  the  hand  to  swing 
freely,  make  the  two  vertical  loops  equal  in  size  (Illus.  52),  and  resist  the 
tendency  of  the  chalk  to  follow  continually  the  same  line.  Let  it  move  about 
till  the  two  forms  are  to  a  degree  equal  and  the  hand  moves  with  ease  and 
facility.  Practice  the  same  thing  with  the  left  hand.  The  next  exercise 
is  to  make  the  same  form  horizontally;  then  to  put  in  the  two  diagonals, 
swinging  over  each  loop  many  times  to  get  facility  and  to  overcome  all  awk- 
wardness of  movement.  Practice  on  the  loops  should  be  especially  directed 
to  the  points  where  awkwardness  is  indicated,  and  continued  until  this  is 
overcome.  This  is  a  beautiful  exercise  for  compelling  rectitude  and  for 
making  balance,  proportion  and  fitness.  It  is  quite  difficult  to  make  these 
forms  fit  in  tlic  l)eginning.  Do  not  expect  accuracy  at  first,  do  not  mind 
how  much  the  forms  overlap  in  getting  facility,  ])Ut  as  soon  as  this  facility 
has  been  attaine<l.  endeavor  to  get  fitness  and  exactness.  The  same  is  to  be 
done  with  the  left  haml.     Manv  rosettes  and  forms  similar  to  this  can  be 


Illustration  ':3 


Illustration  53 


Illustration  =4 


made.  Suggestions  may  be  found  in  the  illustrations  in  this  book.  It  is  a 
very  easy  matter  ft)r  a  good  teacher  to  make  twenty  arrangements  of  the 
double  looj). 

When  facility  has  i)ccn  accpiircd,  practice  this  loop  as  the  smaller  chiM 
is  doing  in  lilus.  51.  The  i)upil  must  endeavor  to  make  the  loops  (47) 
erect,    equal    in    size,  and    equidistant    from    one    end    of   the    blackboard 


S2 


Manoal-Trainingf  Drawing 


to  the  other.  Let  them  be  about  six 
inches  in  length.  Then  interlace  the  loops. 
It  is  quite  difficult  to  draw  this  (liius.  60) 
so  that  the  loops  will  l)e  erect,  equal  in  size, 
and  of  equal  distance.  This  is  a  very  good 
exercise.  Do  not  allow  the  form  to  be 
drawn  quickly,  and  resist  the  tendency  of 
the  hand  to  move  as  in  writing.  Continue 
the  exercise  straight  across  the  board. 
There  is  a  great  tendency  to  let  it  dimin- 
ish in  size.  This  can  be  seen  readily  when 
a  large  numl^er  of  pupils  are  drawing 
the  form  at  the  same  time.  The  same 
exercise  can  be  done  with  the  left  hand 
and    many  varieties  of  it  can    be  devised. 

cAppUcation  of  the  Loop.  — The 
next  is  (juite  an  important  exercise 
(Tllus.  55).  In  making  this  form,  draw 
the  loops  from  six  to  eight  inches  in 
length,  letting  the  center  loop  be  erect 
and  the  two  side  loops  balance.  The  hand 
must  swing  freely  over  these  lines  till  per- 
fect control  and  automatic  movement  are 
acquired.  This  compels  rectitude,  balance, 
proportion  and  fitness.  It  can  also  be 
interlaced  by  another  similar  form  (Illus. 
59).  making,  if  it  is  properly  done,  a 
complete  rosette.  This  is  also  to  be  done 
with  the  left  hand.  This  form  can  be 
varied  in  many  ways,  making  use  of  six, 
eight  or  twelve  loops,  interlacing  them, 
etc.,  as  shown  herewith. 

'^ason  for  these  Movements, — 
Only  a  few  of  these  forms  should  be  prac- 
ticed at  each  lesson,  it  being  desirable  to 
give  all   the    period   to  two    or  three, — a 


Illustration  55 


Illustration  56 


Illustration  57 


Elementary  Drill  Forms 


83 


Illustration  58 


Makini;  Loop  Foriii>  With  lliith  llnndn,    Prilliury  C'hilltrvn 


Judicious  selection  liaving  l<ccii  made  l>y  tlic  tcaclier.  It  will  lie  foiiiul 
that  the  forms  and  the  work  are  a  little  tedious  in  the  i)cjjimiinj^,  just 
as  the  scales  in  studying  music,  or  the  exercises  re<|uired  in  singing,  are  con- 
sidered tedious.  But  experience  teaches  that  these  forms,  projierly  carrietl 
out,  will  produce  the  desired  results  in  the  organism  in  the  shortest  space  of 
time,  and  the  teacher  will  realize  that    to   get    automatic    facility  a  tlow  of 


84 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawing 


Illustration  59 


Illustration  60 


movement  is  all-important.  Very  little  can  be  done  in  skilled  iiand  training 
if  the  movements  are  made  consciously.  It  is  only  by  making  them  auto- 
matic, thus  allowing  concentration  of  thought  upon  the  end  in  view,  that 
good  and  skilled  work  can  be  done. 

The  Spiral. — The  next  form  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  in  all  art 
forms, — the  spiral  (Illus.  61).  In  making  this,  swing  the  hand  to  the  cen- 
ter with  a  single  touch.  Do  not  mind  how  crude  it  is  in  the  beginning. 
Begin  this  from  the  outside  at  a  and  aim  for  the  center.  Let  the  end  of  the 
line  be  in  the  middle,  at  b.  Continually  practice  this  form.  It  is  the 
basis  of  most  designs:  it  is  seen  in  botanical  forms,  in  the  movements 
of  water,  air  and  wind.  Even  the  planets  spin  in  spiral  orbits.  The 
endeavor  must  be  to  make  a  true  and  good  curve  instead  of  a  bent  line. 
Only  liy  making  the  swing  automatic  can  this  be  done.     The  form  must  be 


Illustration  61 


Illustration  62 


Elementary  Drill  Forms 


85 


repeated  with  each  hand  in  all  directions;   first,  to  the  right,  tlie  left,  up  and 
down,  and  of  dittcrent  lengths. 

The  next  exercise  is  to  douI)le  this  form  (lllus.  63).  It  can  also  he 
made  fourfold.  Xext,  practice  making  the  spirals  flow  one  into  the  dther, 
like  No.  C^^.  Let  them  show  gradation.  This  is  quite  difficult.  Xext, 
make  a  series  of  spirals  flowing  one  out  of  the  other  and  etpial  in  size,  as  in 
illustration  Xo.  66.     To  do  this  straight  across  the  hoard,  to  keep  them 


Illustration  64 


Illustration  63 


Illustration  6^ 


lllustMtirn  66 


lllustra'.lon  67  (fc) 


equal  in  size  and  at  equal  distance,  is  an  excellent  exercise.  It  shouUl  he 
repeated  indefinitely.  This  is  one  of  the  most  heautiful  uf  al!  forms  and  it 
is  used  continually  in  iraiiy  of  the  Lest  styles.  In  fact,  it  is  hard  to  make 
a  good  pattern  without  introducing  this  unit.  Endeavor  to  make  the  lines 
ofUie  spiral  flow  one  into  the  other  gradually,  showing  the  transition  increas- 
ing an<l  diminishing.  Do  not  let  it  he  ahnq.t  antl  angular,  as  at  a.  hut  flow- 
ing an<l  graceful,  as  at  /'.  in  illustrations  No.  67. 


86  Manual-Training  Drawing 

Modeling  and  Carving. — Years  of  experience  demonstrate  that  copy- 
ing and  drawing-  fronr  models  alone  on  flat  surfaces  fail  to  give  pupils  the 
free  swinging  movements  so  essential  in  making  artistic  curves  and  touches. 
The  hand  always  seems  to  lack  a  certain  facility  that  even  many  years  of 
work  sometimes  fail  to  give.  When,  however,  the  hand  becomes  able  to 
move  with  ease  in  soft  clay  and  tough  wood,  when  it  has  been  trained  to 
follow  lines  and  surfaces  through  these  mediums,  it  is  wonderful  how 
(juickh-  the  finest  and  most  complex  curves  can  be  produced  with  free 
swinging  lines  and  touches.  In  drawing  these  spiral  forms,  therefore,  and 
all  the  other  drill  forms,  it  must  be  understood  that  the  best  results  can  only 
be  obtained  when  carried  out  as  I  recommend  in  the  various  mediums — on 
paper,  in  soft  clay  and  in  tough  wood. 

The  facility  and  accuracy  of  form  obtained  by  pupils  working  this 
way,  compared  with  pupils  who  only  draw  in  the  ordinary  manner,  is  e.x- 
traordinarv.  At  first  I  could  hardly  believe  it  possible,  the  difference  is  so 
evident.  Experience,  however,  proves  that  a  much  deeper  and  more  lasting 
impression  of  form  is  secured  when  pupils  make  the  various  forms  in  differ- 
ent mediums.  The  hand  also  seems  to  become  stronger  and  more  energetic. 
Of  course,  working  in  wood  compels  the  exercise  of  greater  strength 
through  the  hands,  and  this  exerts  a  favorable  influence  over  the  body,  espe- 
cially over  the  upper  part,  the  arms  and  chest.  This  influence  is  particularly 
beneficial  to  children  who  suffer  from  the  sedentary  habits  formed  in  schools, 
who  lack  full  chests  and  droop  over  their  work. 


-  ■ '- ; 


Illustration  68 


Mriiiorv  r>r:iwing 

These  various  bird  forms  arc  drawn   fmm  pictures  and  the  chamctcr  and  size  memorized  as  much  as  possible 
The  forms  arc  repealed  uuLil  they  caa  be  drawn  from  lueatal  image. 


CHAPTER  III 

Elementary  Units 


yl  MOXG  THE  MOST  POPULAR  FORMS  of  ornament  arc  llic 
/J  various  kinds  of  foliage.  Lea\es  have  l)een  modified  for  many  pur- 
■^  -*•  poses  in  nearly  all  the  styles  of  ornament.  There  is  no  end  to  the 
variety  anfl  shape.  For  our  purpose,  we  will  begin  by  making  a 
few  of  the  simplest  conventionalized  leaves,  from  which  we  may  gradually 
pass  to  the  most  complex.  The  simple  leaf  units,  I  find  by  experience,  are 
among  the  best  things  we  have  for  school  practice  and  drill.  They  embody 
all  the  desired  qualities  and  are  perfectly  graded,  from  the  .simplest  leaf  forms 
to  the  most  complex  of  the  Roman  acanthus  leaf  shapes. 

Simple  Leaf  Forms. — Draw  a  vertical  line,  about  eight  inches  long, 
to  represent  the  midrib  of  the  leaf.  On  each  side  place  a  double  curve,  as 
in  N'o.  C)f).  Draw  the  center  midrib  ujjward  in  the  ilirection  of  the  growth 
of  the  leaf.  This  form  should  be  repeated.  .\  very  good  way  is  to  go  over 
the  lines  many  times  till  the  double  curve  becomes  automatic.  The  .shape 
can  be  repeated  fourfold  (Illus.  70),  thus  making  eight  double  curves  in 
different  directions;  this  should  also  be  repeated  until  automatic.  It  is 
quite  difficult  to  resist  reversing  these  curves  in  the  beginning,  but  a  very 

(87) 


88 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


little  practice  enables  the  pupil  to  get  them  right  and  to  make  good  balance, 
fitness,  proportion,  etc.  The  form  can  be  made  more  complex  by  adding 
four  more  leaflets,  forming  a  rosette  (No.  71).  This  form  can  be  made 
by  drawing  the  leaflets  long  and  narrow,  short  and  thick,  with  the  complex 
curve,  and  the  single  curve,  as  illustrated  on  page  96. 


Illustration  69 


Illustration  70 


Illustration  71 


..^gss. 


The  Natural  Method.  — Do  not  expect  this  form  to  be  accurate  in 
the  beginning  and  tlo  not  allow  any  ruling  of  construction  lines  or  measur- 
ing. This  method  is  a  protest  against  the  use  of  mechanical  or  artificial  aids, 
which  help  the  hand  at  the  expense  of  the  mind  and  the  judgment.  These 
forms  and  rosettes  will  be  very  crooked  at  first,  but  it  is  surprising  how  soon 
they  can  be  made,  by  very  young  children,  with  precision,  as  though  they 
were  measured  and  marked  off  by  means  of  callipers  or  rulers.  The  more 
construction  lines  are  used,  the  more  they  will  be  needed.  Abolish  them 
from  the  beginning.  Compel  the  hand  and  the  eye  to  obey  the  mind  and 
to  gain  proportion  and  fitness  without  aids.  This  capacity  is  so  desirable, 
so  valuable  throughout  life,  in  any  vocation,  that  it  is  hard  to  think  that  any- 
one would  be  willing  to  use  the  crutches  which  are  allowed,  and  usually  pre- 
scribed, in  most  drawing  systems. 

It  has  been  universally  the  practice  to  teach  the  pupils  to  measure  off 
these  construction  lines  by  artificial  aids,  thus  putting  it  out  of  their  power 
ever  to  be  able  to  dispense  with  them.  Do  not  mind  how  crooked  the  form 
is  in  the  beginning.  I  have  never  yet  found  a  child,  after  drawing  the  most 
crooked  rosette  in  this  way,  who  was  unable  to  perceive  its  imperfection  and 
was  not  able,  if  allowed,  to  improve  upon  it.     If  is  this  capacity  that  we  wish 


Elementary  Units 


89 


to  obtain, — tlie  power  to  compel  tlie  judgment  to  act  from  tlie  start,  so  that 
in  the  course  of  time  the  hand  will  oiiey  tlie  mind  and  the  habit  be  formed 
of  making  accurate  proportion  and  fitness  freehand.*  Of  course,  as  facility 
is  gained,  accuracy  must  be  tried  for. 
•  Children  in  a  very  short  time  can  make  this  comparatively  complex 
rosette  form  with  a  great  deal  of  correctness  and  facility.  It  shouUI  be  done 
with  one  hand  and  then  with  the  other.  It  is  a  construction,  a  representa- 
tion and  a  decoration,  ami  I  think  it  absurd  to  separate  these  qualities,  as  is 
done  in  some  "  systems,"  and  to  give  long  lists  of  graded  exercises  under 
each  head.  All  of  these  simple  forms  are  constructions,  representations  and 
decorations.  It  is  difficult  enough  to  create  the  power  to  make  the  simple 
forms  well  witiiout  surrounding  tlie  work  witii  a  lot  of  technical  and  seem- 
ingly mysterious  terms  and  processes.  Many  courses  are  filled  with  words 
like  "  bi-symmetrical  conventionalization."  "  systematic  modifications  of 
geometric,"  "  bi-symmetrical  ornaments,"  "  modifications  of  the  round," 
"  kite  form."  etc.  Unnecessary  technical  terms  like  these  simply  tend  to 
obscure  to  the  young  that  wliicli  sliould  be  as  plain  and  lucid  as  the  thing 
itself. 

The    Next    Form  is  the  same  as   the   preceding,   only  a  little  more 
complex — a  leaf  with  three  tips  or  leafiets.      Draw  the  midrib  about  eight 


Illustration  72 


Illustration  71 


•  The  more  frequcnllya  vnlunlary  .icllon  i»  rrpcitctl.  the  r.«icr  It  it  to  perforin,  anil  the  greater  ■•  the  tendency 
of  it»  cnn>tiluent«  (if  It  U  a  cmnplei  act)  lt>  Like  on  the  rerlex  form,  I.  c.,  tn  «rnin|ie  them»elve»  in  a  connected 
•erici.  i.f  nii.vcinrnH,  which  run*  on  mechaniciilly  when  once  Initiated  hy  the  adequate  •timului.-[Wundt'« 
Lecture^  on  Human  and  Animal  Psychology. 


90 

Illustration  74 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawing 


Drill  Work  in  Leaf  Forms  and  Loops 
This  picture  illustrates  a  pupil  drawing  the  leat  and  loop  in  various  ways.  The  lines  are  repeated 
many  times,  without  rubbins:  off  the  forms,  which  wastes  time.  By  this  repetition  the  child  is  making 
the  various  curved  lines,  the  form,  and  the  space  between  the  forms,  organic  and  automatic,  and  at  the 
same  time  facilitv,  rectitude,  balance,  iitness  and  magnitudes  are  being  ftlt  and  planted  in  hand,  eye 
and  mind. 


inches  in  length,  balance  the  side  vein  on  each  side,  then  repeat  the  double 
curve  to  each  tip.  Let  the  proportions  of  each  leaflet  be  about  the  same. 
This  is  a  very  good  leaf  to  practice  on.  Do  not  let  the  tip  be  made  too  small, 
as  is  the  common  tendency  with  nine  out  of  ten  children  drawing  for  the  first 
time.  Swing  the  hand  repeatedly  over  the  double  curves  till  they  become 
automatic. 

The  same  thing  can  be  repeated  fourfold,  making  a  complex  rosette 
(No.  "JT)).  It  is  almost  impossil)le  to  make  this  in  the  beginning  without 
reversing  some  of  the  double  curves.  Leave  plenty  of  space  in  the  center, 
and  do  not  mind  if  it  is  very  crooked  at  first.  This  exercise  can  be  repeated 
till  the  forms  fit  each  other,  leaving  a  space  between  each  leaf. 

No  one  can  see  the  children  draw  these  forms  without  realizing  what 
an  excellent  exercise  this  is  for  compelling  accuracy,    facility,    fitness  and 


Elementary  Units  91 

sonic  of  the  most  desired  (lualitics  in  drawing.  In  a  short  time  the  children 
become  able  to  make  these  forms  automatically.  From  the  beginning,  do 
not  allow  them  to  make  "construction  "  lines.  Let  each  leaf  be  drawn  in 
its  turn  separately.  Do  not  make  the  ribs  or  veins  for  the  four  leaves 
before  starting  the  outline  of  each. 

Tlicsc  exercises  are  far  discif<li)ie.  it  should  be  constantly  remembered. 
Undoubtedly,  by  using  a  few  construction  lines,  the  form  can  be  drawn  more 
readily  and  with  much  better  proportion,  but  my  idea  is  to  get  proportion 
and  fitness  in  the  hand,  to  make  the  hand  feel  that  proportion  and  fitness 
automatically.  This  can  be  done  and  well  done  if  the  forms  are  practiced 
as  described.  Thousands  of  children  can  make  this  form  w  ith  ease  in  some 
of  our  schools,  showing  that  it  is  not  as  difficult  as  it  appears  to  people 
viewing  it  for  the  first  time.  It  does  seem  surprising  to  see  children  make 
their  hands  obey  their  minds  with  fluency,  accuracy  and  fitness,  but  it  is  not 
so  surprising  when  one  has  been  through  the  stages  and  can  realize  how  they 
become  able  to  do  it. 

I  constantly  suggest  certain  sizes  for  the.se  forms,  because  experience 
with  thousands  of  pupils  has  proved  the  size  indicated  to  be  the  best. 
There  are  good  reasons  for  making  the  forms  either  much  larger  or  very 
small,  but  for  general  purposes  the  measurements  given  are  the  most  suit- 
able. It  is  (luite  curious  to  notice  the  tendency,  among  children  and  adults 
alike,  to  show  their  disposition  and  their  training  by  the  way  in  which  they 
make  some  of  these  forms.  For  instance,  children  from  the  kindergarten 
will  almost  invariably  make  minute,  puny  drawings.  The  reverse  should 
be  the  case.  \'ery  small  children  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  draw  that  way, 
because  the  brain  centers  with  which  the  fine  finger  co-ordinations  and 
muscular  movements  are  made,  have  not  been  formed  and  come  much  later. 
In  some  little  children  even  the  bones  and  muscles  themselves  are  not 
formed.  Nervousness  and  chorea  freciucntly  result  from  work  of  tliat  char- 
acter attempted  too  soon.  Their  movements  especially  ought  to  be  large 
and  free,  using  arm  and  hand  more  than  the  fingers.  I  personally  nuich 
object  to  paper  pricking,  paper  weaving  ami  a  number  of  other  similar  occu- 
pations in  ihc  kiiidiTirrirten,  for  the  same  reason. 

Conventional  Forms. — These  leaves  here  given  are  conventional  in 
form.  Some  teachers  may  object  to  tlii>.  tliinking  it  essential  that  children 
should  make  realistic  forms  before  conventional  ones.     .\  little  thought, 


a. 


C3         U3     "^ 


T3 


O 
O 

<J 
C/) 


J5    o 
c    .^ 


U 


O   "3 


0 


T3 


b;0     5 


Elementary  Units  ''3 

however,  should  convince  tlieni  that  if  tlicy  are  troulile<l  wiili  llie  details  and 
myriad-fold  markings  on  leaves,  it  will  he  impossible  for  them  to  get  facility 
and  speed;  hut  if  they  work  on  a  few  typical  or  conventional  forms  of 
leaves  until  they  can  instantly  draw  them  in  any  position,  of  any  size  and 
proportion,  and  to  fit  any  space,  then  it  will  he  easy  to  grasp  details,  and 
with  very  little  practice  many  kinds  of  leaves  and  forms  can  he  put  down. 
We  must,  as  Michael  Angelo  said,  "purge  a  thing  of  its  superfluities  and 
grasp  the  essentialities." 

Pui)ils  who  have  arrived  at  this  stage  can  make  many  designs  hy  using 
these  simple  forms.  They  have  already  some  capacity  in  this  direction. 
From  the  start  children  must  he  encouraged  to  arrange  these  forms  in 
beautiful  ways,  to  make  appropriate  patterns  for  various  purposes,  in  order 
to  allow  their  creative  capacity  to  come  into  play. 

Units  of  Design  Based  on  the  5ptra/.— The  power  having  been 
acquired  to  make  the  .spiral,  a  large  scric-  ul  units  of  design  can  be  base<l 
upon  this  line.  Ir  making  the  first  one.  the  scroll  (Illus.  75).  draw  the 
outer  line  first,  make  the  ball  come  as  near  the  center  as  possible  and 
endeavor  to  keep  the  lines  equidistant.  This  is  really  a  form,  the  delinea- 
tion of  a  solid,  one  of  the  forms  used  in  all  the  arts.     It  is  made  in  metal. 


Illustration  75  Illustration  77 

Illustration  76 


carved  in  wood,  modeled  in  clay  and  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 
Do  not  make  the  form  reverse.l,  as  in  No.  "'''■  1^  '»  »  '•''l'-'  ilifii'--"'^  '"  t''*-' 
beginning  for  some  pupils  to  gras]>  the  shai>e,  but  it  must  be  practiced  con^ 
tinuallv  until  it  can  be  made  automatically.The  forms  illustrated  at  77  and  78 
will  be  found  useful  f(.r  practice  also,  and  are  based  on  the  same  shape,  w.lh 


94 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


slight  changes,  but  increasing  complexity.     Each  of  these  forms  is  used  in 
some  of  the  best  styles. 

Do  not  allow  the  children  to  create  freak  units.  We  have  so  many  to 
choose  from  among  the  best  styles  that  it  is  absurd  to  expect  them  to  create 
units  of  design  at  first,  as  is  done  in  some  of  the  poor  systems  of  drawing  in 
which  children  are  expected  to  create  forms.  In  such  cases,  the  children 
invarial)Iy  produce  poor  and  feeble  forms. 

The  Crocket. — We  next  have  a  series    of   forms   making   use   of   the 
crocket.     We  should  practice  this  form  first  with  the  crocket  consisting  of 


Illustration  80 


Illustration  78 


■"^ 


[lustration  79 


a  single  curve  on  the  outside  and  inside  the  scroll,  as  illustrated  at  Xo.  80. 
After  this  has  been  acquired,  try  to  make  the  crocket  with  the  double  curve 
(8i)-  This  is  much  more  difficult  and  recjuires  a  great  deal  of  practice, 
much  dexterity  being  recjuired  to  get  these  double-curved  crockets  so  that 


Illustration  81 


Illustration  82 


thev  How  and  have  grace.     This  is  one  of  the  units  (see  aiso  81  and  82)  that 
must  be  practiced  continually  ami  for  a  long  time. 

Do  not  expect  the  children  to  make  some  of  these  difficult  forms  read- 
ily.    Remember,  they  have  years  to  i)ractice  them  in.     Some  instinctively 


EUmentarv  Units 


95 


Illustration  83 


A  Variety  of  Units  of  Dcsipn  Based  on  the  Spiral  with  Various  Crockets 
Tile  pleasing  forms  shoultl  he  memorized 


Illustration  84 


let  tlie  lines  llow  with  jjradatioii.  lieaiily  and  i^iace  almost  from  the  liegin- 
ning.  \\'ith  otiiers  it  refjiiires  a  good  ileal  of  practice  to  get  the  verv  tleii- 
cate  transitions,  from  one  cnrving  to  the  other,  that  are  exemplified  hv 
this  form.  It  can  be  made  to  look  (jnite  clnmsy.  and  it  can  he  made  with 
a  great  deal  of  beauty  and  grace.     This  is  true  of  all  the  forms  given. 

On  the  Elements  of  Design. — Xow  that  we  have  some  nniis  of  the 
regular  styles,  \\c  shall  in  e\ery  case    hereafter    in    practicing    these  forms, 

make  the  form  to  get  (i) 
balance,  (j)  projiortion  an<l 
[},)  htness.  1  )n  not  let  the 
pupils  practice  any  of  the 
shapes  given  without  trying 
for  these  (pialities.  \'ery 
good  sim])le  designs  can  be 
niade  by  using  lhe.se  forms: 
the  children  in  the  primary 
schools  can  mnke  tliem 
with  ;i  great  deal  of  f;icility. 
I'mni  the  \er\  begin- 
ning, origin.ility  of  arrange- 
ment nnist    be  encouraged. 

Thii  pupil  in  practicinu  Ihc  ncnill  and  variouii  cirKki'l*.    Uc|>vti. 

lion  will  enable  the  hand  to  make  the  form  any  «i/e  and  pr.>|«ir1i.in  Hc  SUrC  tO  liaVC  tllC  clllldreU 
with  clear  ftwinKinic  lineK.     When  it  can  lie  made  freelv  lhi»  wav,  ,  .      .  p 

beao.iful  flowing  d«i»n.  can  be  pr.K)uced.  '"'IKf        tllCir        patterns        foF 


9(> 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawingf 


some  dcfniitc  purpose  and  lie  al)le  to  specify  what  tliey  are  for.  thus  associ- 
ating iu  tiieir  minds  the  drawing  with  some  oljject  for  use.  It  seems  very 
foolish,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  to  find  a  number  of  children  in  a  class  un- 
able to  state  for  what  the  drawing  they  have  been  making  is  intended.  When 
you  ask  them  they  say  simply.  "  it  is  a  pattern  "  or  "  a  design."  and  when 
pressed  for  further  information  about  it,  they  say,  "  it  is  for  the  teacher." 
This  shows  that  they. have  not  made  any  mental  connection  between  idea 
and  subject,  and  the  work  soon  becomes  irksome  unless  rhey  have  an  object 
in  view. 

It  is  wonderful  what  a  variety  of  patterns  children  will  make  spontane- 
ously and  l)ring  to  the  teacher  if  they  are  encouraged  to  make  designs  for 
various  purposes  about  the  house. — designs  for  carpets,  wall  papers,  hang- 
ings, metal  work,  chandeliers,  brackets,  registers,  fixtures  of  different  kinds, 


Illustration  85 


Illustration  86 


lllustrai.on  87 


Illustration  83 


-^\r 


-4 


lloscttc.'i  f»>r  Drill  Work 


carving  on  furniture,  chairs,  tables,  sideboards,  frames,  hat  racks,  etc.; 
designs  for  pottery  and  dishes  of  various  kinds.  The  children  instantly  see 
the  conncctior  and  take  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in  making  these  forms;  and 


Elementary  Units 


97 


by  using  tlie  ol)jects  in  tlieir  own  liomes  tliey  are  ins]:)ire(l  llierehy  to  better 
work.  Parents  and  friends  also  l)econie  interested,  esjjecially  when  they 
see  the  practical  application  of  the  work. 

Combinations  of  Units. — The  children  should  be  encouraged,  as  a 
unit  is  thoroughly  mastered,  to  double  it,  first  in  simple  positions  ami 
then  in  complex  ones,  as  shown  in  variety  in  lllus.  89  to  92.  It  is  sur- 
prising in  how  great  a  number  of  positions  the  simple  scroll  can  be  placed. 


Illustration  89 


lllustr.itiDn  00 


The     children     must      be      encouraged 
continually  to  arrange  all    the  units  in 
this  way.  so  as  to  form  ditferent  com- 
binations.    Do  not    let  them    copy  oub    the  combinations  given    here,  but 
cncouraire  them  to  form  combinations  of  their  own. 

A  very  beautiful  series  of  exercises  for  beginners  can  be  practiced  m 
making  rosettes,  using  the  simi)le  lobe  or  leaf  form.  The  rosette  can  be 
placed  in  a  triangle  (lllus.  93),  in  a  sipiare.  in  a  circle,  in  an  ol)long,  in  a 
pentagon,  in  an  oval  form,  in  a  hexagon,  in  an  octagon,  and  so  on.  1  here 
is  no  end  to  the  variety  of  simple  shapes  that  can  be  ma<le  this  way.  It  is  a 
beautiful  exercise  for  fitness  and  construction.  Make  the  square,  or  oblong, 
and  all  construction  lines  entirely  freehan.l.  Do  ibis  from  the  very  begin- 
7 


98 


Manual-Training  Drawings 


Illustration  93 


Blackboard  Exercises — Drawing  Rosettes 
It  is  excellent  practice  to  make  similar  rosettes  fit  and  till  diHTerent  shaped  spaces.      The  hand  and  mind 
soon  grasp  the  idea  ol  concrete  size  on  the  Hat  surface,  and  become  able  to  make  definite  proportion  auto- 
matically in  any  position.     The  children  practice  these  forms  entirely  witlinut  construction  lines. 


ning.  Very  young  pupils  make  very  irregular  forms  at  first,  but  they  soon 
begin  to  get  a  certain  amount  of  proportion  and  gradually  gain  the  correct 
shape.  Do  not  expect  little  children  to  make  perfect  forms.  Accuracy 
comes  by  degrees.     Facility  first,  then  accuracy. 

Leading  Lines. — So  far  we  have  chiefly  been  studying  units  of  design. 
Xow  that  a  number  of  units  have  been  mastered,  we  can  take  up  the  subject 
of  leading  lines,  one  of  the  most  important  things  in  designing.  In  all  pat- 
terns there  are  a  series  of  fundamental  lines  that  can  readily  be  seen  by  any 
one  who  will  study  them.  On  these  leading  lines  the  units  are  placed,  and 
in  accordance  with  the  character  of  their  arrangement  will  the  pattern  be 
beautiful  or  the  reverse.  The  basis  of  leading  lines  is  the  spiral,  one  form 
fiowing  out  of  the  other,  as  in  Illus.  96  and  98.  If  this  form  is  doubled  or 
made  fourfold,  we  at  once  have  an  arrangement  on  which  anv  of  the  units 


Elementary  Units 


99 


of  design  can  he  placed,  making  a  pattern  tliat  is  beautiful    or   not.   as  the 
arrangement  is  beautiful  or  the  contrary. 

Practice  many  simple  arrangements  witli  a  few  curves  first.  In 
making  arrangements  do  not  allow  the  spiral  to  he  made  the 
same  size.  This  is  one  of  the  universal  tendencies  of  a  hegimier. 
Insist  on  variety.  Let  some  of  the  scrolls  he  large,  some  meilium 
and  some  small.  Let  them  show  a  certain  amoimt  of  growth,  as 
a  plant  grows.     They  should  display  a  certain  amount  of  branching  also. 


1  .r  Unitt  iiii;  :i»il  MoJclinif  and  Curving 

Attention  must  be  given  also  to  compactness,  to  radiation  and  to  tangential 
llow  of  line.  A  very  good  exercise  for  practice  is  to  make  a  nund>er  of 
tangential  curves  (lowing  from  the  spiral  ( Illus.  09).  This  nuist  be  constantly 
practiced  till  the  forms  llow  and  branch  out  wiihoni  .ingnlarity  or  stiffness. 
Good  tangential  curvature  must  become  automatic  ami  organic.     \'ery  little 


Illustration  96 


lltustratixn  q? 


in  the  way  of  fine  designing  can  be  done  till  the  hand  makes  these  move- 
ments automatically  and  with  absolute  freedom.  If  we  have  to  think  of  the 
transition  of  one  line  into  the  other,  it  will  never  be  graceful.  That  duty 
must  be  relegated  to  the  spinal  centers. 


(00 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


Illustration  98 


Resist  the  tendency  shown  by 
a  great  many  beginners  to  make  a 
series  of  little  curves  all  alike  and 
flowing  in  a  like  manner  in  differ- 
ent directions.  Try  to  get  a 
certain  amount  of  strength  in  the 
patterns,  a  certain  amount  of  in- 
terlacing, and  at  the  same  time  a 
certain  amount  of  simplicitw  There  will  al\\a\s  he  a  few  main  or  funda- 
mental curves  that  can  be  readily  seen,  no  matter  how  complex  the  pattern 
may  be.  I'rom  these  main  curves  the  minor  ones  can  branch  out.  Very 
little  can  be  said  in  the  wa_\-  of  rules  and  laws  with  regard  to  the  real  truth  of 
arrangements.  Like  harmony  in  nuisic  and  meter  in  poetry,  it  nuist  be  felt, 
it  must  be  jiart  of  the  organism. 


illustration  99 


A  Suggestion    in   tlic    Use   of  I.t-iuiing   Lines 
Many  arrangements  of  leading  lines  should  be  made  for  practice 


Illustration  loo 


CHAPTER  IV 

GDmbinations  of 
Units  and  Styles 


Drill  Forms— Teachers  Practice  in  Uni!>uii 


xoriii'.R  i"()im.  I'.ASi'.i') 

oil  the  looj),  is  Diic  of  the 
l)cst  for  |)iacticc.  and  can 
now  he  attenijned.  Make 
the  IcM)])  creel  and  (Hi  each  si<le  place 
two  or  tiiree  loljes,  as  shown  at  loi. 
See  that  the  center  loi)e  is  i|uite  erect, 
or  vertical.  Let  each  one  of  the  side  lobes  cnrve  a  hi  tic  more,  increasinjj  in 
niagnitnde  and  then  diminishinJ,^  This  form  can  he  made  uith  five,  seven, 
nine  lobes,  etc.  Properly  drawn,  it  makes  the  anthemion,  one  of  the  most 
bcantifnl  of  all  (ireek  forms.  It  is  (jiiite  .liftlcnlt  to  get  the  side  lobes  to 
cnrve  and  at  the  same  time  to  show  gradation  an<l  fitness,  but  comparatively 
little  practice  will  enable  one  to  do  this.  This  form  must  also  be  pnic- 
tice<l  with  both  haiK'.s.  it  being  one  of  the  very  best  exercises  for  ambidex- 
trous practice. 

(lOl) 


^-tJNTVFKSTTY  Of  CAt.lF 
SANTA  bAKBAR.^  CULLECt  ^.l 


t02 


Illustration  lot 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawing 

Illustration  102 


Illustration  103 


Illustration  104 


The  Anthemion.— This  form  can  next  he  practiced  in  the  four  dilYerent 
directions  illustrated  in  io5  and  116,  inakint;'  another  beautiful  rosette  form. 
To  do  this  successfully,  so  that  the  lateral  movements  may  be  right  and  the 
drawing  erect,  requires  a  great  degree  of  manual  dexterity  and  physical  co- 
ordination, but  children  in  the  primary  grades  can  readily  make  this  form 
after  a  few  months'  practice. 

It  is  im])ortant  that  children  should  understand  the  meaning  of  the 
forms  drawn  by  them,  and  when  they  are  producing  one  the_\-  ought  to  be 
taught  what  it  embodies.  The  anthemion  is  a  fundamental  Greek  iovm. 
and,  properly  drawn,  possesses  a  variety  of  qualities.  For  instance,  the  cen- 
ter lobe  contains  straight  lines.  The  form  has  a  graded  series  of  curves  from 
a  straight  line  to  an  acute  curve.     It  has  balance,  projiortion,  fitness,  grace 


Combinations  of  Units  and  Styles 


103 


CO'Otdinalion  of  Miitor  Centers 
This  exercise  illustrates  li.m-  readily  cl.iMrei.  i.in  m.iUe 
complex  phvslcil  co.nr.llniili..ns  in  ;ill  Jire.  ti.n.s.  The  exer- 
cl.e  i«  repeiiled  until  the  .hild  can  svvinK  all  the  various 
cur>cs«ith  (ij  rucilitv,(J)  l.alance.(.,l  pn>|,orti..n,  .4 ,  fitness, 
urace  and  heaulv.  automatically.  Mental  co.ordinalK.ns  are 
iKinKn.ade.  a,  well  as  physical.  All  the  varieties  of  the  an. 
tluininn  should  he  practiced  in  dilTerenl  «i«.  and  memorised. 
The  children  should  be  encnuraijed  t..  draw  them  in  lead 
pencil  and  to  note  varietv  of  form,  on  .urfices  and  in  nnl. 
tcrial.  This  form  is  the  basis  of  iome  ..f  the  n.ost  iK-autiful 
of  decorative  forms. 


104 


Manoal-Training  Drawing; 


and  beauty.  It  has  tangential  cur\'ature  of  lines.  Its  magnitudes  arc  well 
proportioned.  It  conforms  to  a  great  many  of  the  natural  laws  and  the  laws 
of  art.  It  has  a  certain  amoimt  of  growth,  radiation  and  distril)ution,  and 
hardly  an  abstract  idea  of  form  can  be  conceived  that  is  not  embodied  in  this 
shape.  This  is  the  reason  it  was  used  by  the  Greeks  in  preference  to  almost 
any  other  form,  and  I  believe  it  was  for  this  reason  that  they  used  it  as  the 
antefix  of  the  Parthenon. 


Illustration  107 


Illustration  108 


Illustration  109 


Illustration  no 


^-1^''^'^ 


Varieties  of  the  anthemion  can  be  made  in  a  great  many  ways,  as  here 
illustrated.  Names  have  been  given  to  many  of  these,  as  the  honeysuckle, 
the  palm,  etc.,  but  as  used  by  the  Greeks  it  was  simply  an  ideal  form  and  not 
an  imitation  of  any  one  plant. 


Combinations  of  Units  and  Styles 


JOS 


Illustrations  iii-iu 


Plaster  Modi-ls  Irom  the  Antique 


Combinations  of  the  c/lnthemion. — Wlicn  facility  has  been  ac(|iiire(l 
in  inakinjj;^  this  form,  a  very  j^ood  exercise  is  to  conihine  il  with  the  scroll 
(^Uhis.  113).  In  the  beginning,  make  the  form  williont  many  lobes,  taking 
particular  |)ains  to  make  the  lobes  fit  each  other  and  I'lll  the  s])ace  e(|nally. 
This  is  a  little  iliHicnlt.  but  if  practiced  conlinuallw  a  short  time  will  enable 
one  to  make  the  most  complex  of  lobetl  forms  with  case  and  beauty.  After 
trying  the  simple  ones  a  number  of  times,  then  more  elaborate  and  complex 
ones  can  be  attempted.      Xo.    114  is  a  \ery  beautiful  form,  combined  with 

llie  sen  ill.  and  can  be  used  for  an  endless  variety  of 
[turposes.  It  can  be  made  short  and  thick,  long  an<l 
slender,  and  can  be  compressed  or  extended  to  lit 
aluKJSt  any  space.  With  the  introduction  of  crock- 
ets, lirst,  the  single  crocket  and  later  llie  double 
cnrveil  crocket,  it  can  be  made  to  look  still  belter, 
as  illustrated  iii  l-'igures  1  15  and  i_'o. 
/      N}^i|'//'r_)  i  I  -^^  soon  as  facility  is  ac(|uire<l  in  making  this 

<T'^'^^  >^ST  J  !       form,  which  slujuid  be  pr.tcticed  with  each  hand, 
.'ind  as  soon  as  the  power  to  make  it  with  balance 


lllustrntion  113 


i06 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


Illustration  114  and  fitness  has    become    auto- 

matic, it  can  also  be  practiced 
with  the  scroll  combined  an- 
other way,  as  in  No.  120.  In 
making  this,  ilraw  the  lobes 
first,  with  both  hands  and  then 
the  inclosing  scrolls.  En- 
deavor to  make  the  forms  fit. 
This  is  a  good  exercise  for 
teaching  compactness  and  the 
filling  of  space,  and  may  be 
performed  in  a  variety  of  ways 
(Illus.  120).  All  of  these  forms 
should  be  made  fourfold  as 
soon  as  the  first  form  has  been 
memorized,     for     once     these 

forms  are  fixed  in  the  mind  they  are  not  forgotten,  l)nt  can  be  called  upon 

almost  without  consciousness. 


Illustration  116 


Illustration 


Gsmbinations  of  Units  and  Styles 


107 


Illustration  117 


Illustration  118 


Illustration  119 


Illustration  i::o 


,\;i'!l'  (    k"il  ;tiiJ  Scrnll 
Tlie»c  fornn,  varied  in  iiUc  ana  proportion,  ii.u»t  be  dm<vnwilhilcar»winKiiiStou.hc«   iinlil  Ihcy  ciin    l>c    inilde 
without  con«c  ouK  cITort.     Tl.c  l.a.U  ot  tlic   .niningly  complex  lorin  i.  the  »pinil  and  l.«.|'-      ^Vlu  11   onc«  facility 
anil  inairnllndc*  liecomc  automatic,  licautiful  forms  reiult. 


lOS 


Manual-Tfainingf  Drawings 


Complex  Leaf  Forms.  — The  next  step  is  to  make  a  leaf  with  five 
leaflets,  palmate  in  shape.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  as  with  the  three- 
pointed  leaf  (page  89),  making  the  niidri!)  first  and  two  curves  on  each  side 
balanced,  then  the  douI)le  curves  forming    each    leaflet    (Illus.    121).      This 


Illustration  121 


Illustration  122 


must  be  repeatedly  i)racticed  till  a  medimn  sized  leaf  of  fine  jiroportions  is 
made.  Do  not  let  the  children  practice  a  very  narrow  or  a  very  short  and 
thick  form.  This  leaf  must  also  be  made  easy  by  repetition,  and  it  can,  like 
the  former,  lie  made  in  four  directions  (Illus.  122).  Let  it  be  about  ten 
inches  in  length  when  drawing  it  on  the  blackboard  and  three  or  four  inches 
in  length  when  drawing  it  on  ])aper.      Reference  is  continuallv  ma<le  to  the 


Combinations  of  Units  and  Styles 


J09 


measureinents  that  liave  been  found  hy  experience  to  be  tlic  most  suital)le 
for  school  purposes.  If  the  l)lackboar(ls  are  of  the  ordinary  size  tlie  meas- 
urements given  are  far  the  best  for  general  purposes.  Be  careful  not  to  let 
the  children  make  forms  exaggerated  in  size,  or  in  miniature. 

It  is  more  ditVicuIt  to  draw  a  side  view  of  a  leaf,  but  when  facility  is 
acquired  it  becomes  quite  easy  on  account  of  its  not  being  a  balanced  form. 
Let  tlie  leaf  part  be  about  ten  inches  in  length,  draw  the  large  double  curve 


Illustration  135 


Illustration  136 


Illustration  127 


Illustration  138 


first  and  then  the  two  ribs.  (Sec  123.)  Do  not  make  it  look  ungraceful  or 
too  tiiick  and  let  the  stem  be  narrow.  These  are  connnon  tendencies  in  the 
l)eginning  with  all  children.     The  form  must  be  rein'ated  a  number  of  times 


no 


Manual-Training:  Drawing 


to  q-et  facilitv,  and  then  it  can  be  drawn  in  ditterent    directions,    balanced, 
made  around  the  circle,  etc. 

V,y  this  time  the  double  curve  should  flow  from  the  hands  with  ease, 
and  therefore  much  more  complex  forms  may  now  be  attempted,  as  in  Illus. 


Illustrations  129-133 


,  IV  N,„„ 


7 


^   1    d        ^ 
i     V. ■  i  I 


^\\  \  Y/l 


,1  i 


\ 


^H'/^ 


124.  As  many  ribs  and  leaflets  as  are  desired  can  be  put  in.  Endeavor  to 
get  style  and  beauty  in  these  forms.  They  can  l^e  drawn  so  as  to  look  very 
coarse  and  clumsy,  or,  on  the  contrary,  to  look  exceedingly  graceful  and 
beautiful.  In  making  these  complex  leaf  forms,  get  as  much  variety  of  pro- 
portion as  possible;  do  not  let  the  leaflets  ])e  all  of  the  same  size.  The  same 
with  the  ribs;  let  them  flow  out  with  gradation  and  tangential  curvature. 

Beautiful  rosettes  can  be  made  liy  using  the  leaf  curve  Tsee  125).  Small 
points  or  darts  can  be  placed  between  each  leaflet  and  an  endless  variety  of 
such  shapes  can  l)c  made.  Make  the  center  boss  or  ball  first,  then  draw  the 
leaflets  out  on  each  side  entirely  freehand,  without  construction  lines,  mak- 


Elementary  Units  and  Forms 


in 


ing  some  of  the  leaflets  with  three  tips,  some  with  live  or  more,  as  shown  in 
the  ])ictiires. 

Bad  Forms  can  also  be  made,  antl  leaf  sheaths,  consisting  of  an 
exterior  and  interior  double  curve  (see  134).  The  same  forms  can  then 
be  made  with  very  simple  collars  (as  in  Illus.  135),  using  four,  five  or  six 
leaflets.  Let  these  little  collars  appear  to  embrace  the  root  of  the  bud  first, 
and  do  not  draw  them  as  though  they  came  out  from  one  side  only.  Re- 
member that  this  is  delineating  the  appearance  of  a  solid  on  a  flat  surface. 
It  is  difficult  to  make  the  collar  fit  in  the  beginning,  but  the  children  soon 
grasp  the  idea  and  make  very  iieautiful  ones, — some  short  and  thick,  some 
long  and  slender.  This  is  called,  in  its  most  com])lex  stages,  the  acanthus 
leaf  bud  form.     It  is  simply  an  ideal  bud  form. 

Another  Beautiful  Series  of  Leaves  can  l)c  made  by  using  the  dou- 


lllustration  iji 


lUustr.ition  135 


llustration  137 


ble  curved  leaflet  as  before,  but  making  an  "eye"  between  the  leaflets.  This 
change  makes  it  more  complex  and  a  little  harder  to  draw  successfully,  but 
it  is  soon  conquered.      Make  the  five-pointed  leaf  and  the  side  view  and  all 


112 


Manual-Training:  Drawing 


the  other  forms  with  the  eye.  as  illustrate<l  in  Xo.  136.  Tlie  same  thing  can 
he  ilone  with  the  l)iul  forms  of  tlie  last  series,  ahvays  drawing  the  hnd  itself 
tirst,  then  the  midrihs  for  the  collar  of  leaflets  radiating  from  the  hnd.  and 


Illustration  138 


the  collar  of  leaflets  last.  Never,  in  any  of  these  exercises,  allow  the  chil- 
dren to  make  the  ontline  first.  Init  let  them  hegin  with  the  ril)S  forming  the 
skeleton  or  the  framework,  and  if  you  once  get   this   right,    the  detail  is  an 


Illustration  139 


'<:<*\l!T^i*^ 


\ 


V 


• 


l^J     J-J^ 


Leat  Fomis  Modeled  in  Clay 

easy  matter.  As  a  result  of  this  practice,  the  most  beautiful  and  elaborate 
acanthus  leaf  Imds  and  foliage  can  be  drawn  organicallw  They  will  then 
appear  very  dift'erent  from  the  usual  forms  given  pupils  to  copy,  in 
which  the  leaf  margins  and  the  forms  of  the  leaves  themselves  are  drawn 
with  meaningless  lines,  and  with  notches  and  points  like  saw  teeth,  instead 


G>mbinations  of  U;\its  and  Styles 


113 


of  tlie  l)eaiitiful  (loul)le  curve  tliat  we  always  find  in  work  of  the  best  periods 
(see  Illus.  140-142). 

These  ideaHzed  forms  very  soon  take  on  the  character  of  tlie  incH- 
vidual  drawing  them.  Just  so  much  balance  and  proportion  and  fitness  as 
the  pupil  has  in  himself  can  be  embodied  in  the  work  of  the  hand.     If  there 


Illustrations  140-142 


is  a  tendency  to  make  coarse  forms,  then  the  pupil  must  struggle,  and  by 
repetition  from  good  copies  and  good  styles,  gradually  grasp  finer  forms. 
I  have  taken  the  clumsiest  of  bovs.    who    seemed    to  have  all  their  lingers 


lllustratiuns  143-14; 


thumbs,  and  who  produced  in  the  beginning  thick-set.  coarse  and  clumsy 
forms  without  grace,  and  l)y  giving  them  special  drill  on  one  or  two  of  the 
most  graceful  of  these  forms.  I  have  seen  them  enabled  to  <lraw  them  with 


)J4 


Manual-Training  Drawing: 


unusual  grace  and  beauty.      To  do  the  work  successfully,  then,  it  must  be 
made  automatic. 

The  work  at  this  stage,  although  good  discipline,  is  not  a  task,  because 
the  pupils  take  pleasure  and  joy  in  their  efforts.  There  is  no  more  pleasant 
sight  than  to  see  eight  or  ten  children  swinging  with  each  hand  these  forms 
freely  and  gracefully  on  large  blackboards.  Even  the  beginners  soon  grasp 
the  spirit  and  endeavor  to  do  it  also.  Do  not,  however,  allow  the  pupils  to 
struggle  with  the  very  complex  units  before  they  have  mastered  the  simple 


Illustrations  146-148 


ones,  as  you  will  tind  that  they  continually  wish  to  do.  I  am  well  aware 
that  there  are  many  drawing  teachers,  and  even  in  some  cases  artists, 
who  ought  to  know  better,  who  will  say  there  is  not  much  good  in  drilling 
children  and  requiring  them  to  do  work  of  this  character.  Usually,  how- 
ever, they  will  be  found  to  be  thoughtless  people  who  have  not  looked  into 
the  laws  of  mental  growth  and  who  do  not  know  the  force  of  habit.  The 
drill  is  necessary  to  get  the  qualities  desired,  and  as  long  as  it  is  enjoyable, 
benefit  comes  to  the  pupil.  I  am  well  aware  that  the  work  can  be  overdone. 
This  is  true  of  anv  good  thing.     But  I  write  this  simply  for  the  benefit  of 


Combinations  of  Units  and  Styles 


ns 


teacliers  wiio  liave  a  little  iina}^ination  ami  who  w  ill  not  \>e  tieil  down  to  any 
one  set  of  processes  or  forms.   Tcn-niiiuite  periods  arc  (piite  long  enough  ftjr 
tliis  practice. 
Illustration  iaq  Illustration  150 


I.^-:ir  l''orins  Modck-tl  in  CI;iy 

Another  scries  of  bcaiititiil  leal  forms  can  he  made,  iisinj;  the  leaf 
either  with  three  points  or  ti\e  points,  and  with  and  withnut  the  eyes,  hy 
employing  donhle  curves  in  each  midrib.  These  are  mucii  harder,  and 
should  not  he  attempted  until  the  erect  or  straight  leaves  have  Keen  mas- 
tered.    The  forms  can  he  made  around  a  circle,  turned  up  and  down,  lo  the 


IllUsIt  I 


lllustratiuii  i- 


•Vvv 


m 


.It   I'unni  Ml 


Drtiltn    Mixlile.l    in  Cl.i\ 


right  and  the  left,  as  illustrated  in  Xo.  14O-8.      i'upils  will  in  the  ])egiiming 
find  that  thcv  reverse  these  douhlc   curves   fretpiently  in  starting  any  new 


n6 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawing: 


form,  and  that  is  a  sure  sign  tliat  the  curve  is  not  made  automatically.  It 
must  be  practiced  with  hoth  hands  till  it  is  right  every  time.  Just  as  we 
have  practiced  to  get  facility  in  making  these  leaves  and  a  certain  good  pro- 
portion, they  should  also  be  practiced  to  get  fitness, — that  is,  to  make  them 
fit  different  sized  spaces  and  to  proportion  them  to  other  surrountlings  with 
ease  and  grace.  This  will  not  take  so  long  as  one  would  think,  when  the 
first  stages  have  been  mastered.  Designs  embodying  these  forms  should 
be  made,  first,  by  simply  doubling, 
then  by  making  fourfold  and  still 
more  complex  arrangements. 

Illustrations  153-156 


i^^^X^ 


Combinations  of  Leaf  and  Scroll. —Vv^cuqg  making  this  scroll  and 
leaf  in  a  very  simple  form  first  (lUus.  153-G).  Make  the  scroll  with  a  single 
touch,  a  little  crocket  inside,  and  lastly  the  double  curving  portion  or  piece 
of  leallet.  When  this  has  been  tried  in  different  directions  a  number  of 
times,     make    the    same    form,    adding    other    curves    as    with     leaflets. 


Combinations  of  Units  and  Styles 


n? 


Practice  making  these  in  dilTerent  directions  (iiiite  a  nimihcr  of  times. 
Then  the  same  form  can  l)e  attempte<l  with  more  elahoration.  Make  tlie  leaf 
portion  witli  several  leaflets.  These  forms  will  he  quite  awkward  and  clumsy 
in  the  heginning.  It  is  very  hard  at  first  io  make  them  flow  out  from  each 
other.  Let  them  "grow."  Persist  in  making  them  with  the  left  hand  in  tiie 
drill  work,  and  in  a  very  short  time  beautiful  conventionalized  foliage  can  be 
drawn. 

The  result  is  very  different  from  the  amateur  work  usually  produced  by 
people  who  attempt  to  make  foliage  without  having  first  learned  to  draw 
thoroughly  an<l  automatically.  It  is  impossible  to  express  growth  and  tan- 
gential curvature  and  flow  of  line  with  comple.x  leaflets  and  buils  in  dift'erent 
places,  if  one  has  to  think  of  details  and  the  shape  of  the  different  portions. 
That  must  all  be  automatic  in  the  hand,  the  thought  being  given  to  the 
arrangement,  the  flow  and  the  transition  of  one  form  into  the  other.  ( )nly 
when  such  freedom  is  securerl  ilo  we  have  dnr.i-iit};  as  a  mode  of  cxl^rcssioii, 
which  is  vcrv  dilYerent  from  imitative  drawing, cojjying  a  ])iece  and  a  portion, 
first  "sketching"  in  with  light  lines  and  then  "lining  in"  with  others.  Our 
children  have  plenty  of  chance  to  make  merry  over  that  kind  of  drawing. 

To  replace  the  scroll  any  other  of  the  units  of  design  can  now  be  used 


iltuKtrations  157-158 


^^ 


with  the  leaflet  in  endless  combinations,  paying  attention,  of  course,  to  fine 
arrangement,  to  flow  of  line  and  to  beauty.  Space  will  not  allow  me  to 
illustrate  a  fraction  of  all  the  combinations  that  can  he  made,  though  I 
should  like  to  suggest  a  few.     These  forms  can  readily  be  seen  in  the  ilhis- 


(18 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawing 


tratidiis  of  pn])ils  drawing  on  l)lackl)oar(ls,  in  dift'erent  jiarts  of  tlie  Ijook.  To 
make  combinations  of  these  forms  is  one  of  the  usual  (hHll  exercises  in  all 
•our  schools,  the  children  stepping'  up  to  tlie  blackboard  in  rows  and  each 
one  making  ditiferent  patterns,  that  are  elaborate  and  graceful  according 
to  the  amount  of  practice  they  have  liad.  Children  starting  with  this  work 
at  the  regular  primary  age  can  readily  do  as  good  work  as  is  here  illustrated 
by  the  time  they  are  al)out  ten  years  of  age. 

Illustration  159 


Moresque  Desigrns 

These  forms  are  quite  difficult  to  make  flowing  and  graceful.  The  single  units  must  be  thorcuighlv  memorized 

before  successful  designs  can  he  made.     Fine  arningements  of  these  can  be  made  with  brilliant  colors. 


The  Moorish  Units.  — Another  \ery  good  unit  for  jjractice  is  the 
^loresque  unit.  This  is  much  more  difficult  to  make  automatic  than 
appears  from  its  simple  form.  Make  the  large  douljle  curve  on  the  outer 
part  of  the  unit    first.     (See  Ulus.  i'6o.)     Then    swing  in  the  doul)le    curve 


Combinations  of  Units  and  Styles 


119 


from  tlie  point  so  tliat  if  prolonged  it  would 
tlow  from  the  stem  and  the  two  short 
curves,  diminishinsj  in  breadth  toward  the 
stem. 

This  form  nuist  be  drawn  with  a  single 
touch  for  each  line.  It  is  an  ideal  form. 
and  perliajjs  next  to  tiie  (Ireek  form  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  in  tiic  whole  range  of 
design.  Make  the  unit  short  and  thick,  or 
long  and  slender,  but  always  with  a  narrow 
stem.  It  is  quite  difticult  for  the  pupils  to 
resist  making  a  scroll  instead  of  a  point  on 
the  short  blade,  as  indicated  in  Figure 
162.  Point  out  to  the  class  the  two  blades, 
a  long  dt)uble  curving  blade  and  a  short 
thick  curving  blade.  Time  nuist  be  given 
to  this  form,  and  after  a  good  do.il  of  prac- 
tice it  can  be  doid)led.  Practice  drawing 
it  singly  and  doublc<I  in  all  directions 
around  the  circle. 

The  next  unit  ( lllus.  163),  also 
Mores(|ue.  is  likewise  good  for  practice. 
This  is  much  more  cas\'  than  the  jire- 
ceding     form,     although     it     looks     more 


Illustration  160 


I  lustration  161 


Illustration  162 


Illustration  163 


Illustration 


Illustration  165 


Illustration  \V^ 


/20 


Manual-Training  Drawings 


complex.  Make  the  outer  curve  swinging  to  the  top  scroll,  and  then  a 
double  curve  to  the  second  scroll  and  then  a  long,  slender  stem.  This  must 
also  be  practiced  in  many  directions.  Be  careful  to  space  markings  ecjually 
and  parallel.  In  combination  with  the  other  form  given,  beautiful 
Moresque  patterns  may  also  be  made.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in 
spacing  out  these  forms  and  in  interlacing  them,  otherwise  the  product  will 
be  poor.  Simple  arrangements  are  best  in  the  beginning.  Each  of  these 
forms  doubled  can  be  used  for  drill  work  on  the  blackboard,  a  few  of  which 
are  illustrated  in  No.  159. 


lU'jstration  169 


Cloloi  l>U|.il>  iV.Mi,   rui'ii.:  >Ui....i> 

These  childrt-n  have  been  instructed  by  their  own  school  teacher,  in  drnwinf^  and  modeling. 


CHAPTER  V 

Drill  Forms  and 
Designs. 


yt  COMPLEX  EXERCISE  and  one  requiring;  a  ccriain  amount  of 
yl  dexterity  is  to  combine  circles,  making  different  figures.  Do  not 
allow  the  jjupils  to  make  these  exercises  until  they  are  expert  with 
the  single  circle.  Make  the  folltiwing  exercise  ( lllus.  171)  in- 
drawing  first  one  circle  and  rejjeating  the  line  by  swinging  the  hand  on  it 
several  times  to  memorize  the  size  and  proportion,  then  swing  the  liand  to 
the  second  position,  making  the  circle  as  near  as  possible  the  same  size,  and 
then  to  the  third  jjosition.  If  it  is  properly  drawn,  it  ought  to  make  a 
complete  circle  inclosing  three  eipial  circles,  eipially  interlaced. 

This  is  a  good  e.xercise  for  the  juiigiiieiit  and  to  tit  the  forms.  W'licn 
the  three-sided  center  piece  is  nuule  of  ecjual  curves.  e(iui-distant,  and  the 
next  space  is  even  and  equal,  and  so  on  to  the  inclosing  circle,  it  shows  great 
accuracy.     I  shall  repeat  again  that  we  must    not    expect   accuracy  in  the 

(■2.) 


J  22 


Manual- Training  Drawing 


beginning.     Facility  first  and  then  accuracy.     This  is  a  statement  tliat  I 
shall  make  continually.      Measured  accuracy,  of  course,  is  not  required. 

The  greatest  artist  that  ever  lived  could  not  perform  these  simple  exer- 
cises absoluteh-  true,  Init  ordinary    people    can    perform    them  to  a  degree, 


Illustration  170 


Illustration  171 


i\  .,.nP«;j''"=-~-%rf!-..  / 


#     \     J 


\ 


>. 


Illustration   172 


showing  very  good  proportion,  fit- 
ness, and  so  on.  If  a  large  class  is 
drawing  the  same  exercises,  it  is  very 
rare  that  one  or  two  do  not  fail  to 
show  remarkable  facility  and  exact- 
ness in  doing  these  things.  Some  have 
facility  and  accuracy  almost  organic 

or  automatic  in  the  beginning:  others  seem  to  entirely  lack  these  qualities, 
and  it  seems  as  if  they  could  never  acquire  them. 

Borders  make  a  very  good  series  of  exercises  for  practice  and  drill  work. 
The  pupils  can  begin  with  the  simplest  frets  (like  173).  Make  these  forms 
entirely  freehand,  straight  across  the  blackboard  or  paper,  from  end  to 
end.  Do  not  mind  if  they  are  not  accurate  in  the  beginning.  The  tendency 
with  everybody  at  first  is  to  make  them  diminish  in  size.  Resist  this  and 
keep  up  the  practice,  and  very  soon  the  border  can  be  made  with  straight- 
ness  and  the  other  required  qualities.  Make  a  number  of  forms  similar  to 
the    liorder,  using    straight    lines,  as    illustrated.      Then    a    series    can    be 


Drill  Forms  and  Dcsig;ns  J  23 

made,  usiiigf  a  coiiihination  of  tlic  liorizoiital  and  tlic  ol)li(|iic  line.  .\  num- 
ber of  elements  are  used  in  Ijorders.  The  jiupils  can  hej^in.  say  with  the  sim- 
ple frets,  using  straight  lines,  then  a  .simple  elementary  plait,  the  zigzag,  the 
beads,  nud  utiicr  complex  ones.  The  Ava\e,  the  scroll,  and  the  spiral  will 
make  a  beautiful  series  qf  borders,  and  all  the  ditTerent  units  of  design  can 
be  used  in  it.  The  scroll  and  crocket,  the  leaf,  the  Moresque  unit,  the  Greek 
form,  etc.,  can  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  as  partially  suggested  in  the 
accompanying  sketches. 

Illustration  173 


Exercise  In  Dmwinif  Borders 
Borders  of  many  styles  cun  be  dniwn  and  memorized  by  n-jjclition.     All  the  jfood  common  l>«»r. 
dcrs  seen  in  wood,  metal  and  stonework  should  become  ftmiliar  to  the  pupils.     It  is  excellent 
practice  to  diaw  them  entirely  freehand  across  the  board,  also  on  paper  and  slates.  This  compels 
a  prcat  deal  of  accuracy. 

Endeavor  to  have  the  children  vary  tliese  forms  and  make  the  ."same 
units  of  difTercnt  proportions.  Beautiful  borders  can  l)e  made  with  the' 
Greek  forms,  introducing  theanthemi(.)n.  Then  there  is  a  series  of  Celtic  frets. 
Arabian  frets,  Moresque,  Chinese,  and  so  on.  It  is  quite  important  that  pupils 
should  understand  the  meanings  of  some  of  these  ornaments,  this  enabling 
them  to  enjoy  the  ornaments  more  thoroughly.  \'ery  few  of  the  wonderful 
patterns  seen  sometimes  on  barbaric  ornament  fail  to  contain  or  symbolize 
certain  things. 


124 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


illustration  174 


Strap  Work, 
Til  in:ik,e  these  forms  interlace  and  balance  without  erasing:  lines  or  m:irkini;offthe  dimensions, 
compels  attention  and  is  valuable  manual  training.     Very  elaborate  work,  strap  work  and  com- 
plex frets,  etc.,  may  be  drawn  for  practice  this  way- 


Exercises  to  Compel  Accuracy,— T\\&  little  exercises  liere  given  are 
to  compel  the  hand  to  attention.  I  begin  with  a  simple  form,  the  loop 
(shown  at  174).  Th^  object  is  to  enable  the  hand  to  make  the  loop  stand 
erect  and  to  interlace  the  band  at  once,  freehand,  without  crossing.  To 
make  the  double  loop  is  a  little  more  difficult.  To  make  it  so  that  it 
is  equal  on  both  sides  at  first  is  almost  an  impossibility.  But  notice  that  when 
the  form  is  repeated  a  few  times  the  hand  gradually  becomes  accustomed  to 
it.  and  makes  it  in  better  shape;  and  after  a  few  repetitions  the  power  to  get 
the  form  interlaced  and  at  the  same  time  drawn  correctly  is  unconsciously 
ap])lied  or  becomes  automatic.  Do  this  with  the  loops  fourfold  as  above. 
Xe.xt  try  the  band  (Illus.  17.4),  making  all  the  links  equal  in  size  and 
each  band  interlaced  with  others  at  regular  intervals.  To  do  this  at  first 
without  raising  the  pencil  except  at  the  required  places,  compels  attention 
and  a  certain  amount  of  thought  and  care  that  is  beneficial.     Next,  try  the 


Drill  Forms  and  Designs 


J  25 


Illustration  17 

u. 


form  of  two  rings  interlaced.  The  lines  are  to  he  ilraun  at  once  without  cut- 
ting each  other,  and  the  rings  should  be  quite  evenly  drawn.  This  must  he 
repeated  many  times.  Then  the  same  thing  can  he  done  with  three  rings 
interlaced. 

The  next  exercise  is  to  draw  a  hand  interlacing  the  ring  (Illus.  174). 
Rememher.  it  is  required  that  these  forms  shoul<l  interlace  without  cut- 
ting aii<I  without  lifting  the  pencil  except  at  the  projjer  stops.  The  work 
recjuires  continued  thought  and  trouble  in  the  beginning.  l)ut  can  be  done 
quite  swiftly  and  with  a  great  deal  of  accuracy  after  practice.  This  is  a 
thing  to  be  desired  and  helps  excee<lingly  in  a  variety  of  j)laces  in  <lra\ving. 
It  makes  the  hand  obey  the  thought  in  certain  places  with  rajiidity.  Do  not 
mind  how  crooked  the  forms  are  in  the  beginning,  or  liow  many  errors 
are  made.  Persist  with  the  work  till  it  can  l)e  done  with  case  and  accuracy. 
A  good  return  will  be  had  for  the  trouble  taken. 

Interlacing  work  of  several  kinds  can  also  be  attempted.     To  make 

this  so  that  eacii  l)aii(l  is  of  the  right  length 
witiiuut  cutting  the  wrong  band,  requires  a 
certain  amount  of  dexterity  and  neatness  that 
is  much  to  be  desired,  and  is  difficult  to  get. 
Remember,  the  hand  is  to  practice  this  till  it 
can  do  it  automatically.  Tliis  seems  impos- 
sible at  first,  but  it  has  only  to  be  repeated  till 

.    . .     _^         thehand  and  the  mind  are  thoroughly  familiar 

— j   J-" — »— I     -.-Li —    [ with  what    is    recpiired.    when  it  can  be  done 

III/]     ~|   I        j-  readily  with  great  ease.     The  size  of  the  mesh 

can    be    changed.      It    is   a    good  ])lan  to  try 
strap  work  of  different  kinds  like  this  and  other  patterns. 

These  exercises  are  especially  good  for  students  who  are  inclined  to 
be  a  little  careless  or  slovenly  in  their  work.  It  is  especially  gotxl  ft)r  those 
who  are  not  careful  in  the  beginning,  and  expect  to  come  back  at  some 
future  time  and  make  things  better,  when  it  might  be  done  right  at  the 
start.  It  is  also  excellent  di.scipline,  and  is  useful  for  atlults  for  practice 
when  they  require  to  be  braced  u\>  a  litile  or  do  not  have  energy  sufficient 
for  more  important  things. 

Drill  Wory^. —Throughout  this  period  of  our  work  I  attach  much  im- 
portance to  drill.       I  want  lines  to  be  drawn  automatically.       I  want  them 


J  26 


Manual-Training;  Drawing 


Illustration  177 


to  be  made  with  single  sweeping-  touches.  A  cur\e  is  sometliing  very  dif- 
ferent from  a  1:)cnt  hne.  The  more  sweep  and  swing-  you  can  ol)tain,  the 
better  the  cnr\e  will  be.  We  shoidd  be  able  to  swing  curves  of  any  size 
and  gradation  automatically  with  a  single  movement.  We  caiuiot  imitate 
a  true  curve  or  spiral  by  patches  and  short  touches.  This  is  the  reason  the 
drill  forms  are  so  continually  em])hasized  and  tiiat  I  wish  you  to  practice 
the  sweep  and  the  swing  over  antl  over  again,  until  you  can  make  good 
spirals,  double  curves,  circles  and  ellipses. 

The  ellipse  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  geometric  forms  and  one  of  the 
most  useful  in  design.     It  is  even  luore  beautiful  than  a  circle,  because  it 

has  the  qualities  of  the  circle  combined  with  variety 
of  curve.  Practice  to  make  the  ellipse  automatic 
by  means  of  the  following  exercises.  In  swinging 
this  form  (Ulus.  176),  do  not  endeavor  to  follow 
the  same  line.  Swing  about  in  different  places. 
Facility  first  and  then  accuracy.  This  is  a  good 
exercise,  because  it  compels  l^alance.  Both  sides  of  tlie 
ellipse  must  be  synunetrical.  When  facility  is  acquired 
with  the  one  form,  practice  it  in  combination  (Illus.  177), 
as  in  the  preceding  exercises.  It  is  also  good  to  make 
long  and  narrow  ellipses,  short  and  thick  ones,  to  be  able 
to  make  the  hand  obe_\-  automatically  the  mind  in  response 
to  the  desire.  We  should  be  able  to  put  down  in  drawing  all  these  forms  in 
the  proportions  desired  without  an  instant's  hesitation.  That  is  what  I  mean 
when  I  say  that  proportion  must  be  made  organic,  just  as  we  endeavor  to 
make  balance,  facility  and  fitness  organic.  illustration  :78 

W  hen  this  can  be  done  it  is  very  good  -«=a=9*   .^^i-si^ssssssss 

practice  to  make  a  series  of  vessel  forms.  Let 
the  form  be  simple  in  the  beginning,  like  178 
for  instance.  There  is  no  exercise  that  will 
give  the  children  the  idea  of  a  solid,  the  com- 
plex solid,  in  different  positions,  more  quickly 
than  this.  The  making  of  simple  saucer  or  bowl-shaped  forms  must  become 
automatic.  One  must  practice  with  them  till  the  form  is  symmetrical  and 
stands  properly.     It  can  be  made  deeper  or  wider,  and  different  sizes  can  be 


Drill  Forms  and  Designs 


J27 


niatlc  so  ij^radnatcil  as  to  indicate  tlio  whole  tjrailation  fnmi  a  siiaii^Iit  lim-  ii> 
a  circle,  as  observed  in  different  relations  to  tlie  eye. 

Practice  with  these  cnr\es  will  enable  one  to  s^a-l  very  accurate  balance 
in  these  vessel-shaiie<l  forms.  an<!  the  children  can  also  do  it.       Of  course. 

Illustration  179 


Drill  r<ir  M.ii.'iiilii.li.ti 
'Mlik  |iicturc  shows  pupils  tni;(nari/.ii)^  ina^iituili'S  :iiul  making  Kitliils.     I'lic  L-llipsc:i  iiiu>t  he  svvuiiK  vv  ilh 
fret-  ctintinunu^   liiiicllcs   until   tlic   b.thincc  uttil  si/c  of  form    is  felt.      \'arii»uit  cylindriciil  fortnft  fehoiild  !*« 
ilrjwn  as  cylindcn*,  cone*,  ctrcuLir  plinths,  i-lc. 


ill  the  bej^iniiing  the  vessels  will  seem  a  little  bent  or  crude,  but  they  will 
look  like  soliils,  like  vessel-forms,  containinij  cavities.  In  teachinj:^  de- 
lineation, this  is  (|uite  an  essential  jjoint  to  make  children  realize.  It  is 
quite  tlitVicult  by  the  old  way  to  make  some  children,  and  even  adults,  re- 
alize that  the  movements  or  touches  they  are  makini,'  are  the  visible  rep- 
resentation of  .somethin;.;  in  their  un'nds.  I'sually  they  look  at  the  in.irks 
on  the  paper  or  the  board  as  they  luake  them.  disassociate<l  from  the  mental 
imaf,^e  of  the  thini;  they  want  to  rcpre.senf.  They  look  at  the  pencil  lines  or 
ciialk  marks  as  the  dia},'ram  in  itself,  and  begin  to  work  with  that,  modifying 
and  changing,  instead  of  keeping  to  the  original  mental  image,  and  making 
the  hand  follow  that  form. 


128 


Manual-Training-  Drawing 


It  is  not  easy  to  make  my  meaning  clear  by  means  of  printed  words, 
but  if  one  will  practice  with  this  form,  and  at  the  same  time  think  of  the 
saucers  and  dishes  being  solids,  tlie  hand  will  very  soon  grasp  the  feelingthat 
it  is  delineating  something  tangible  and  concrete,  not  simply  making  pencil 
or  chalk  lines.  This  association  is  strictly  necessary  in  drawing.  W'e 
want  to  make  the  connection  between  the  eye  antl  the  hand  machine-like, 
automatic.  We  want  to  make  one  obey  the  other  without  thought,  an<l 
the  more  we  encourage  this  capacit}'  the  better  the  drawing  will  be.  All 
kinds  of  cylindrical  forms  can  be  niade,  cylinders  of  various  sizes,  circular 
plinths  of  different  sizes  and  the  like. 

It  is  a  very  good  exercise  when  the  children  ha\-e  acquired  facility  in 
this  way  to  make  a  cup  and  saucer.  (See  Illus.  179.)  Every  line  in  this 
cup  and  saucer  can  be  made  accurately  by  means  of  swinging  the  ellipse  in 
different  directions,  and  it  can  be  put  in  very  accurate  perspective.  It  is 
quite  difficult  to  make  the  cup  fit  the  saucer  in  the  beginning.  It  is  good 
practice  also  to  make  different  sizes  of  cups  and  saucers  fit  each  other. 

I  l)elieve  this  principle  was  understood  by  the  Greeks.  Certainly  their 
vessel  forms  of  all  kinds  conform  to  it.  Almost 
every  Greek  vessel  can  be  drawn  by  a  series  of 
these  curves.  In  the  simi)le  vase  form  with 
handles,  illustrated  in  No.  179,  page  127,  every 
line  is  made  without  any  trouljle,  and  \ery  good 
balance  can  be  obtained  if  the  ellipses  are  even. 
Of  course  this  cannot  be  expected  until  the 
ellipse  is  made  automatically,  Ijut  when  that 
facility  is  once  obtained,  beautiful,  balanced  ves- 
sel forms  of  all  sizes  and  shapes  can  be  produced 
with  a  few  touches.  It  is  very' good  drill,  when 
the  children  are  jiracticing,  to  have  them  make 
new  vessel  shapes,  using  the  principle.  Do  not 
let  it  be  overdone.     Keep  the  forms  simple  and  beautiful. 

The  transition  of  curve  into  curve  can  be  studied  while  producing  this 
vase.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  Greek  moldings  conform  to  this  prin- 
ciple. Usually,  the  more  gradual  the  transition  from  cur\e  to  curve  is 
made,  the  better  the  result.  I  repeat  that  this  is  useful  in  enabling  one  to 
make  the  two  sides  of  a  complex-shaped  curved  figure  of  any  kind,  in  wood, 


Illustration  180 


Drill  Forms  and  Designs 


129 


stone  or  metal.  It  is  easy  to  hrintj  llie  concrete  ellipse  to  anv  proportion 
and  .then  to  rejK'at  that  in  any  position.  I  have  never  known  any  (tne 
taught  in  the  old  way  able,  in  drawing  a  vase  form,  to  make  the  lialanced 
line  down  the  other  side  of  the  complex  form.  They  can  very  seldom  gel 
the  two  sides  ahke.  and  never  with  a  single  line. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  tiresome  of  the  tlrawing  exercises  usually  given 
to  children  in  schools, — to  make  the  two  sides  of  a  va.se.  and  I  have  even 

Illustration  i8i 


DI.iifTnms  (or  SrcUon  Vic^vfi)  of  Vrnscl  Fonna  for  I>cfti^In)f  I'pnn 
Sonic  of  iht-Kc  hhapvti  urt;  copied  and  modified.    The  ^nod  fomiii  arc  memorized  and  original  dciti^nin^ 
U  attempted.    The  hahinccd  cur\-es  i»f  these  form*  have  been  inudc  by  swinging  the  ellipse  lightly  and  then 
cm«ing  the  unnece»i».lry  lines. 

seen  the  vase  form  cut  out  on  paper  and  pasted  on  the  wall,  for  them  to 
copy,  as  though  that  would  make  it  more  easy.  Magnitudes  must  he 
grasped  mentally  before  they  can  be  tlelineated.  and  to  do  this,  power  to 
make  magnitude  must  be  made  automatic  by  proper  exercises.  It  is  fool- 
ish to  exi)ect  a  child  to  ]nit  down  a  complex  magnitude  by  imitation  at  the 
first  attempt.  It  is  invariably  exaggcratetl  in  size,  ami  little  |)rofit  results  to 
the  pupil.  The  eye  and  the  hand  must  take  in  projiortion  by  repetition  of 
various  sizes  consciously  assimilated  (llliis.    iSi). 

Work   in   Design. — When    tiie    children    have    hail    a    little    practice 


J30 


Manual" Training  Drawing 


^^ 


Drill  Forms  and  Designs 


}3( 


Illustrations  190-193 


Dcsi(jti,  in  Several  Colors,  for  StAincd  Glass  Window 

M.iik-  l.v  .1  i.iiiiil  ill  the  Manu:iITrainin(f  classes  of  tlif  NtiAv  Vnrk  Voung  Wonicn's  Chri-^tian  Assfn.-i.iti<m. 

The  fine  color-quatilics  cannot  be  perceived  in  this  reproduction. 


Th*?  center  cut  U  unfmi^h  'd.     Thc<ic  dc»{t(n«  arc  rr. 

Thi-  forms  arc  made  crttn 


1^  colors  fur  dlfTerrnt  puqxitca. 
Ir<<  h.inil. 


J32  Manual-Training  Drawing 

in  drawing  the  units  of  design  on  paper,  as  well  as  the  drill  forms  on 
paper  and  blackboards,  they  can  begin  to  make  designs.  See  various  illus- 
trations of  original  designs  by  children  and  teachers  on  pages  66  and  130, 
also  scattered  throughout  the  work. 

In  some  of  my  classes  I  allow  the  use  of  the  ruler,  making  straight  lines 
and  marking  out  the  sizes  of  the  space  that  the  pattern  is  to  occupy.  In 
other  classes  they  have  to  do  not  only  this,  but  the  drawing  of  the  straight 
lines  entirely  freehand,  according  to  the  amount  of  discipline  which  it  is 
desired  to  give  them.  If  they  are  very  young,  or  perhaps  mixed  classes  in 
the  night  school  or  mixed  classes  of  l^eginners.  it  is  advisable  to  give  them 
the  ruler  to  help  them.  If  they  are  pupils  who  have  had  thorough  training 
and  the  right  elements  of  drawing,  and  have  a  certain  amount  of  good  hand 
and  eye  power,  like  the  grammar  grades  of  children  who  have  had  this  train- 
ing from  the  l)eginning,  they  can  readily  make  their  entire  patterns  free- 
hand, drawing  all  the  lines  without  the  use  of  a  straight  edge  or  ruler,  not 
measuring  distances,  and  making  all  circles  without  callipers.  It  is  good 
sometimes  to  give  the  ruler  to  pupils  to  test  or  judge  the  amount  of  pro- 
portion they  have  made,  if  you  can  depend  on  their  not  making  the  actual 
forms  with  it.  This  is  a  question  for  the  individual  judgment  of  the 
teacher.  Some  classes  of  pupils,  of  course,  will  cheat  and  use  the  ruler, 
others  will  do  as  is  required. 

Color  and  Brush  Work. — When  designs  are  finished  to  the  teacher's 
satisfaction  with  ;i  pencil,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  allow  the  pupil  to  paint  the 
background  or  the  design,  whichever  is  best,  in  black  ink.  If  it  is  a  mat- 
ter of  econoni}-,  say  in  the  night  schools  or  rural  schools,  common  jet  black 
ink  can  be  used,  with  a  round  pointed  brush,  with  hairs  about  half  an  inch 
in  length, — Nos.  4  and  5.  If  the  best  results  are  wanted,  allow  the  pupils 
to  paint  the  pattern  with  India  ink,  or  Higgins's  black  ink,  or  preparations 
of  that  kind.  This  throws  out  the  design  and  enables  one  to  see  the  full 
effect,  besides  affording  the  pupil  the  opportimity  to  use  another  tool,  the 
brush. 

It  is  quite  important  to  get  good  brush  handling,  and  in  this  elementary 
brush  work  you  should  endeavor  to  get  the  children  to  make  free,  clean 
touches  with  the  brush  (Illus.  194).  Practice  making  some  of  the  forms 
large,  and  some  small;  try  to  swing  tiie  brush  freely,  without  resting  the 
hand  or  arm.    The  inost  beautiful  flowing  lines  and  forms  can  oe  made  this 


I 


Drill  Forms  and  Designs 


t33 


way.  At  first,  tlie  forms  will  he  very  crude,  but  to  he  of  value  the  forms 
must  be  made  freely  without  help.  Do  not  allow  them  to  pick  out  the  shape 
with  little  patches.  Endeavor  to  get  them  as  much  as  possible  to  draw 
with  the  brush.  \'ery  little  practice  w  ill  enable  one  to  grasp  the  best  mode  of 
handling  the  brush.      There  is  no  better  way  tlian  the  Japanese  method  of 


Illustration  194 


l-iivii-iJiU  liiu>(i  fi.ij  13  Oitjii  Praclicc 
In  makings  various  forms  ;inJ  also  backjjmunds  in  color.     The  pupils  must  endeavor  to  make  the 
form:  with  as  Tevir  touches  as  possible.    Trv  to  draw  with  the  brush,  also  to  do  it  without  imp- 
porting   the  hand  in   any   way.       Much  of  the  best  Greek  .ind  Japane>c  work  has  been  painted 
freehand.   Grasp  the  brush  sometimes  in  the  hand  like  a  pen,  sometimes  by  the  tip  "f  the  handle. 

working,  where  the  entire  forms  arc  made  In  brush  work.  The  patterns 
can  also  be  painted  in  monochrome,  in  one  or  two  shades  of  the  same 
color,  as  sepia  or  terra  cotta;  and  later  on  two,  three  and  four  shades  of 
different  colors. 

From  the  beginning  the  best  pupils  should  be  allowetl  to  use  white 
paper  and  should  be  given  water  colors.  If  it  is  a  matter  of  economy, 
cheap  colors  can  be  purcha.sed  tlint  are  very  good  for  this  purpose,  as  low- 
as  fifteen  cents  a  bo.\.      For   ordinary    school    purposes,    however,  it  is  still 


J  34 


Manual-Trajningf  Drawings 


better  to  use  tlie  re.qfular  water-color  paints.       Tliey  last  a  long  time,  and 
fi\'e  or  six  boxes  will  answer  tbe  demands  of  a  large  numlier  of  designers. 

Blackboard  Work.  — Class  instruction  at  the  blackboard  is  shown  in 
elementary  stages  for  grammar  grade  pupils  in  illustrations  41,  42,  43.  and 
45.  These  pictures  are  from  photographs  taken  in  one  of  the  public  schools 
in  Philadeli)hia.  The  teacher  has  about  60  pupils,  and  all  receive  this 
instruction  in  turn.  The  four  pictures  simply  show  a  series  of  stages 
from  the  simple  circle  to  elementary  designing.  No.  41  represents  the 
children    making    the    first    exercise,    the    circle,  which    is    usually    drawn, 

Illustration  195 


Freeliand  Designing 
Allow  pupils  to  drsiw  bold  and  free  Howing  arrangements  as  large  as  possible,  making  the  curves 
with  swinging  lines,    'rhis  is  open  air  work  on  blackboard,  made  by  a  member  of  my  summer  school 
in  the  Adirondacks. 


as  described  before,  in  six  dilifcrent  ways.  The  second  picture  fpagc 
69)  illustrates  the  children  drawing  the  scroll  form  doubled  with  each 
hand,  the  beginning  of  a  pattern.  The  third  {43)  illustrates  the  pupils 
drawing  the  anthemion  four  different  wa}s.  the  hands  1)eing  placed  for 
the  purposes  of  illustration  in  the  different  positions.  The  fourth 
picture  (No.  44)  represents  the  children  drawing  designs.  These  pic- 
tures   were    made    on    the    same    day    and    the    \isit    was  unexpected.     I 


Drill  Forms  and  Designs  J35 

made  the  pictures  myself,  but  had  never  liccn  in  the  Iniildins^  before,  so 
that  the  test  was  a  fairly  good  one. 

Under  each  stage  represented  there  is  a  very  large  series  of  forms  in 
which  the  children  are  drilled.  Of  course  it  is  not  possible  to  represent 
each  one.  though  I  should  like  to  di^  it.  The  children  are  called  up  in 
rows,  two  or  three  to  a  board,  there  being  four  Ijlackboards  in  the  front  of 
the  classroom.  In  some  schools  there  are  blackboards  around  two  sides 
of  the  wall,  which  will  allow  more  pupils  to  be  drilled  at  the  same  time.  I 
find  sotne  teachers  can.  by  thus  <lividing  the.  class,  give  \ery  conveniently 
a  good  lesson  in  blackboard-drawing  to  a  large  class  in  20  or  30  minutes, 
every  pupil  working  in  turn  on  the  blackboard. 

The  wise  teacher  will  modify  the  suggestions  offered  here  to  suit  her 
own  environment.  It  is  advisable  for  the  pupils  not  working  on  the  black- 
boaril  to  observe  closely  those  who  are  drawing,  the  teacher  calling  especial 
attention  to  faults  in  position,  or  to  particularly  good  results:  then  if  con- 
venient, or  at  other  times,  the  pupils  at  the  desks  can  draw  the  same  forms 
on  their  slates  or  pajier,  as  preferred.  It  would  appear  from  the  pictures 
that  these  children  are  too  clo.se  to  their  w(irk.  almost  as  though  their 
faces  were  touching  the  blackboard.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case.  The 
efTect  is  produced  simply  because  the  camera  had  to  be  placed  behind  the 
children.  \\)u  will  find  that  some  are  almost  at  arm's  length  from  the  de- 
signs. There  is  a  tendency  with  little  children  to  stand  too  close  to  the 
board.       Resist  this  as  much  as  possible.       Let  the  work  be  bold  and  free. 

Designing  on  Blackboards.  —  When  the  pui)ils  have  become  able  to 
make  the  elcnienlary  forms  and  units  of  design  without  any  trouljle.  and 
have  gained  a  certain  amount  of  automatic  balance,  proportion  and  fitness, 
it  is  desirable  that  they  should  take  up  a  course  of  ilesigning  on  the  black- 
boarfl,  it  being  one  of  the  best  po.ssible  surfaces  for  doing  good  or  advanced 
work.  I  recommend,  if  the  cla.sses  are  not  too  large,  that  one  ])upil  work 
on  each  blackboard,  or  at  least  have  a  space  3x4  feet;  4x5  feet  is  still  better. 
This  makes  a  splendid  surface  for  a  single  i)attern.  It  is  advisable  that  the 
designs  be  made  as  large  as  possible,  and  that  both  hands  be  used. 

Xotice  the  illustrations  herewith,  page  13A.  This  is  p.m  01 
a  blackboard-drawing  class.  I''or  convenience.  I  have  shown  the  same 
teachers  drawing  two  different  patterns.  It  will  bu  noticed  that  each  pat- 
tern is  dilTerein,    that    the    scroll,    anthemion,    leaf   form,    shell    form    and 


Illustrations  196-197 


Blackboiird  Dcsij^ning  and  Drill 
These  dcsi'^ns  have  been  made  bv  teachers  nf  the  public  schools,  members  of  the  teachers'  classes,  Public  School 
ol  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia.     The  forms  are  memorized  but  the  arrangement  is  oriijinal,  and  is  drawn  without 
erasure  until  the  entire  pattern  is  liiiished.     ISoth  hands   are  used,  the  left  hand  for  the  left  side  and  the  right  hand 
for  the  ripht  side.     See  paifc  135.     Work  like  the  above  is  done  in  about  4  to  6  minutes  usually. 

(136) 


Drill  Forms  and  Designs  J37 

Moresque  form  arc  used.  Tlie  teachers  are  usina;-  the  left  liands  in  everv 
case  illustrated.  This  is  simply  to  emphasize  the  desirability  of  using  the 
left  hand,  for  reasons  advocated  in  I'^irst  I'rinci])les. 

It  is  best  for  the  pupils  to  make  the  center  of  the  pattern  first,  being 
sure  that  they  find  the  middle  of  the  board.  It  is  not  necessary  to  draw 
aline,  as  is  done  in  some  cases,  down  the  middle  of  the  board.  They  must 
be  able  to  feel  the  middle.  The  center  parts  can  be  drawn  with  botli  hands 
at  once  when  they  are  symmetrical.  If  tiie  pupils  have  had  proper  drill  in 
the  elementary  stages,  this  will  be  quite  easy.  Then  the  rest  of  the  pattern 
can  be  ])ut  in  position.  From  the  beginning,  emphasize  the  desirability  of 
firm  lines  made  with  clear  and  swinging  touches.  Endeavor  to  erase  as  lit- 
tle as  possible.  Of  course  when  the  pattern  must  be  modified  and  changed, 
the  eraser  may  be  used,  but  refrain  as  much  as  possil)le  frt)m  altering  every 
little  part. 

Try  to  see  the  form  as  a  whole  before  making  it.  A  good  designer 
can  always  do  this;  a  batl  designer  is  one  who  makes  it  up  as  he  goes  along, 
putting  things  here  and  there  by  cii;uu-e,  if  they  happen  to  look  well.  It 
is  much  better  to  be  able  vividly  to  form  the  concept  of  what  is  desired,  and 
then  to  put  it  down  complete,  with  a  few  firm  touches.  The  teacher  can 
very  soon  distinguish  the  pupils  who  are  drawing  this  way,  with  a  comi)lete 
concept  in  mind,  from  those  who  are  "  making  up"  as  they  go  along.  Lack 
of  clear  thought  shows  in  the  hesitating  movements,  which  betray  lack  of 
confidence.       I  can  also  distinguish  this  class  of  work  in  finished  designs. 

It  is  a  little  difficult  to  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  board  with  judg- 
ment, good  balance,  etc.,  but  it  is  good  discipline,  and  can  be  done  just  as 
readily  as  if  the  pattern  were  very  .small,  and  gives  much  greater  dexterity. 
Patterns  drawn  this  way  in  the  beginning  will  sometimes  be  very  jnior  in 
composition  and  sometimes  be  too  large  or  too  small  in  parts.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  teacher  should  be  to  rectify,  as  much  as  possible,  this  fault.  The 
moment  the  pupil  steps  back,  errors  of  this  kind  can  be  perceived  and  recti- 
fied. It  is  better  to  hammer  at  one  pattern  several  times  than  to  try  mak- 
ing a  number  of  different  ones,  letting  each  one  have  an  eiuirely  <Iifferent 
character.  Modify  one  pattern  till  it  becomes  very  much  better, — till 
teacher  and  pupil  are  alike  satisfied  with  it, — then  attcmjjt  another. 

This  practice  should  be  continued  till  the  forms  of  any  style  can  be 


138 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


varied  endlessly  at  will.  \'erv  soon,  when  pupils  arrive  at  the  stage  illus- 
trated, there  will  be  a  desire  to  introduce  still  more  complex  forms  in  the 
design,  such  as  dolphins,  griffins,  grotesques,  and  other  decorative  forms. 
This  should  he  encouraged  in  moderation,  and  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  form  used.  It  should  not  be  used  unless  the  pupil  is  thoroughly 
familiar  \\ith  it.  From  the  beginning,  see  that  the  patterns  are  made  for 
some  purpose.  Do  not  let  the  drawings  be  meaningless  patterns  on  the 
blackboard,  without  any  intention.  Of  course  there  is  practice  in  this.  l)ut 
from  the  beginning  the  pupil  should  firmly  keep  in  mind  what  the  pattern 
is  for, — whether  it  is  to  be  used  for  wood,  or  for  stone  carving  or  fabrics,  etc., 
and  as  much  as  possible  it  should  be  rendered  so  as  to  be  fit^and  appro- 
priate for  use  in  those  materials. 
Illustration  ig8 


Free  Hand  Design  with  Griffins 
Do  not  let  pupils  use  any  complex  form  in  desiijning  until  it  is  thorouarhly  memorized.  This  pattern  has  been  drawn 
in  six  niinu'es,  without  removing  the  hand  until  finished.     The  left  side  was  drawn  with  the  left  hand  first,  then  the 
right  side  drawn  in  proper  balance  with  the  right  hand. 


illustration  199 


l)r.us  ing  from  Lilc 


CHAPTER  VI 

Drawings  From  Life  Forms 
and  Memory  Drawing- 


rlllS  IS  AX  nrPORTAXT  rilASI-:  of  our  work,  and  one  that 
must  l)e  emphasized  l)y  the  teaclicrs,  all  tlie  time,  if  they  desire  to 
£jet  good  rcsuUs  from  the  ])iii)ils.  I'upils  should  he  encouraged  to 
draw  from  living  f(3rms  as  murh  as  possible.  A  few  illustrations  herewith  will 
serve  to  explain  my  meaning.  Notice  the  picture  of  the  girl  drawing  chick- 
ens. The  chicken  is  moving  about  in  a  coop.  .\t  hrst  the  results  |)ro<luced 
are  very  de])ressing.  The  bird  will  not  keej)  still,  the  pujiil  comjilains. 
With  a  little  practice,  howewr.  it  will  be  found  thai  it  is  not  nec- 
essary that  the  chicken  should  keep  still  :  that  its  shape  can  be 
obser\e<l  even  when  it  is  moving  about.  Xotice  that  the  girl  has 
drawn  the    s:nne    chicken    in    Inr  dilTiTi'iU    i)c)silions. — a    side    view    th.it 


140  Manual-Trainingf  Drawing 

was  drawn  first;  the  chicken  eating  corn;  a  front  view  of  the  chicken 
looking  np:  the  chicken  seated;  and  the  chicken  holding  up  its  head. 

If  the  pupil  will  persist  in  making  a  few  of  these  diagrams  without 
minding  how  crude  they  are  in  the  beginning,  in  a  very  short  time  i^  will 
be  noticed  that  the  hand  and  the  mind  become  more  familiar  with  the  form, 
and  that  although  the  drawings  are  very  rough,  they  will  become  success- 
sivelv  a  little  better.  A  little  more  power  will  be  registered  in  the  mind 
and  hand  by  means  of  each  diagram  made,  and  by  degrees  the  hand  will  be- 
come more  obedient.  The  feet  will  not  be  made  too  large  or  small,  the  bill  will 
become  of  the  right  proportion,  and  the  tail  will  stick  out  in  the  proper 
way.  Nothing  but  making  the  form  of  the  chicken  organic  by  constant 
repetition,  will  enable  one  to  draw  it  properly.  When  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  impressions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  chicken  have  been  received  bv 
the  mind,  through  the  hand,  then  the  hand  will  begin  to  obey  the  mind  and 
be  able  to  reproduce  them  readily.  This  is  the  stage  desired,  and  it 
will  come  to  almost  any  one  who  practices  a  sufficient  time.  The  chief 
thing  to  do  is  to  work,  and  not  be  discouraged  by  the  distortion  of  the  first 
forms  that  are  made. 

The  same  discipline  can  be  obtained  from  cats,  dogs,  horses,  birds,  or 
any  living  animals  that  can  be  seen  without  trouble.  The  sketches  may 
be  made  on  pieces  of  paper  or  in  a  note  book  or  sketch  book.  In  some 
of  my  sunmier  classes  we  frequently  use  blackboards  in  the  open  air,  as  will 
be  seen  from  several  illustrations  in  this  book.  It  is  of  no  use  to  copy  the 
chicken  a  few  times  and  then  stop.  The  work  might  as  well  not  be 
done  if  that  is  all  that  is  done.  The  memory  of  the  form  must 
be  fixed  by  subsequent  repetition  without  the  chicken.  This  is 
an  important  point.  Sketch  first  from  the  real  things,  as  often  as  is  de- 
sired, to  make  the  required  mental  and  manual  connection,  and  then  as 
soon  as  possible  test  the  mind  and  the  hand  by  trying  to  recall  the  shape  or 
shapes. 

Do  not  be  discouraged  if  the  product  is  bad  at  first.  Continually  re- 
enforce  and  refresh  the  mind  with  new  impressions  from  the  object,  and  in 
a  short  time  it  will  be  found  that  facility  is  obtained,  and  that  much  better 
power  of  expression  is  the  result.  The  first  pictures  and  sketches  are  not 
made  to  keep.  Of  course  I  understand  as  well  as  any  one  that  there  are 
degrees  of  capacity  in  this  work,  as  in  all  other  kinds  of  work,  but  I  have 


Plate  Ten 


|'';iintini;  in  t  oior  irmii  .N:iturc 

ReautlTul  color  work  from  natural  rorrn*  cun  hv  ilonc  by  children  in  the  lower  ifradc*  of  all  ■choola.  If  they  are 
righily  in»lructfd.  Vi%  ii!  nifinoriri*  nf  color  should  he  rvccived  from  fnitt*,  flower*,  InKrct*,  bird*,  fi»h,  ahellk,  etc. 
Color  harmony  and  valucf  should  be  t:iut;ht  from  nutuml  ftinnn,  imi  foMn  *tainrd  itnd  tinU-d  ptipcr».  The  butterfly 
should  speak  directly  to  the  child.  The  c<d»ir»,  thi-ir  are;i*,  tint*  and  value*  should  l*e  mcinnrizcd  and  •hnllar  ar- 
ran^emrnlti  tii.ide  in  dcfti)|[nft  for  various  purp<iKt-ft.  I'hr  teacher  khnuld  Ih:  very  carvful  in  the  bcginnlnif  not  to 
puzzle  children  with  abntract  theories  about  color,  or  l<i  teach  faUe  nomenclature* 


J42  Manual  Training-Drawing; 

never  yet  found  cliildren,  teacliers,  and  other  art  students  who  have  not 
been  benefited,  however  liad  their  work  may  be  at  tlie  outstart,  liy  working 
this  way. 

Good  (h^awing-  and  sketches  of  this  cliaracter  can  be  made  from  the 
mounted  animals  and  other  specimens  in  any  good  museum.  There  is  a  cer- 
tain stifTness  and  rigidity  even  in  the  best^  stuffed  forms.  I)ut  they  are 
good  to  use  if  nothing  better  can  be  had.  In  some  of  my  schools  I  have 
beautiful  stuffed  birtl  and  fish  forms  of  various  kinds,  mounted  for  stui.Iy, 
but  if  possible  I  prefer  tlic  pupils  to  work  from  the  real  forms,  and  for  this 
purpose  excursions  are  made  to  zoological  gardens  and  to  other  places, 
and  the  children  are  continually  invited  to  draw  animal  forms  in  their  native 
environment.  Almost  ever}-  one  has  a  cat,  a  dog,  or  a  canary,  and  there  is 
no  better  practice  than  to  sketch  one  of  these  forms  continually  until  it  ran 
be  put  down  successfully  from  memory  alone. 

Persistence  Required.  — To  do  this  properl\-  requires  a  good  deal  of 
artistic  antl  manual  skill,  and  these  exercises  are  desirable  for  their  aid  in  this 
training,  apart  from  the  even  greater  \alue  to  the  mind,  the  judgment  and 
the  imagination  that  always  accrues  from  vivid,  permanent  impressions  reg- 
istered in  this  way  from  the  realities  of  life.  Such  sketching  from  memory 
must  be  done  continually,  not  a  few  times  only,  followed  by  long  intervals 
of  cessation.  It  is  like  practicing  on  the  piano:  fifteen  minutes  or  half  an 
hour  each  day,  steadily  persisted  in,  will  do  more  good  than  five  or  six 
hours  a  day  with  long  intervals  between. 

I  think  this  holds  good  with  almost  anything.  All  progress  is  a  mat- 
ter of  persistence  and  self-control.  There  are  many  people  who  desire  to 
be  able  to  play  well  or  to  sketch  well,  yet  who  have  not  enough  force  and 
energy  in  their  disposition  to  be  willing  to  make  the  required  movements 
continuously,  and  who  allow  the  influence  or  force  of  their  surroundings  to 
draw  them  away  from  their  desires.  This  yielding  is  in  proportion  to  their 
weakness  of  character.  I  think  one  of  the  most  valuable  lessons  that  we 
can  learn  from  this  work  is  the  fact  that  it  helps  to  form  the  will  and  tle- 
velops  a  tendency  to  continuous  application,  whicli  increases  as  the  difficul- 
ties increase,  and  our  tine  of  work  is  of  such  pleasurable  character  that  it 
carries  with  it  a  certain  amount  of  satisfaction  and  joy  that  cannot  fail  to 
expand  ami  elevate  the  mind. 


% 


Life  Forms  and  Memory  Drawing 


143 


Memory  Thaiving  of  all  forms  ami  ideas  is  not  insisteil  upon  enoncrh 
anywhere,  ihuugh  il  is  one  of  the  most  bcnertcial  exercises  for  expandino- 
the  mind  and  givinjr  the  artistic  al)ility  so  much  to  I)e  desired  educationallv.* 
All  good  artists  sketch  incessantly;  it  is  henelicial  even  to  recall  forms  and 
designs  when  there  is  no  opportunity  to  put  them  down  on  paper.  Xot  life 
forms  onlv  should  lie  meiuorized,  but  tlie  nn'nd  should  he  exercised  in  mem- 
tally  designing,  and  making  compositions  or  ])atterns.  \'ery  valuable  and 
useful  power  can  be  grailually  actjuired  in  this  way.  We  should  be  able 
to  think  compositions  and  designs,  and  mentally  to  change  them  from  state 
to  state,  just  as  the  character  of  our  speech  or  the  current  of  our  ideas 
change  when  we  are  tiiinking  or  reasoning. 

Illustration  200 


Common  .\l:i«:kvrvl— .Sf<'««/«7/'  .>tt»«W'*  u^ 

One  of  thu  most  importiinl  of  food  fishw.     It  is  finely  foimed  and  a  very  Mtivc  oceanic  fish.    All  the  fish 
lorms  illustrated  hercafller  are  drawn  and  modeled  in  my  various  classes. 


Fish  Forms  are  fine  sul)jccts  for  study.  Usually  sinii>le  in  form,  ihe 
children  will  be  found  to  draw  them  with  much  delight.— good  typical  l.-rms 
like  mackerel,  the  salmon,  the  bass,  perch,  blue  fish.— what  fine  shapes! 
There  is  something  about  the  fish  that  usually  makes  children's  eyes  sparkle. 
I  don't  know  whether  it  is  because  they  have  experienced  the  joys  of  fish- 
ing, or  whether  it  is  that  the  drawings  revive  the  sparkle  and  the  gleam  of 
the  actual  fish  in  or  out  of  the  water,  but  I  .lo  know  that  children  take  much 
delight  in  making  these  forms.  A  few  suggestions  will  be  given  as  to 
drawing  these  on  the  blackboard  and  on  paper.      There  is  an  en.lless  variety 


M1,e  phv.ioln„ical  enn.li.i <  U  .h,.t  organic  proce..  hy  which  ner.c  expeilem-r.  ,n  In.  different 

.  en.er.  ari  r^^i...  red  ;  and  ...  -  the.e  eMKrle.ue.  i„  .he  highest  cen.er,  the   f,..K-.lo„.  ..f  «  hic^ 

arx.   attended  wl.h  cn„.ci..us„.  v  ex.ernalnr  In.emal  cau.e.  th.lr  rr.idua.    u|,.,.u.U.s  dU,........n«. 

etc.,  in.ofunc.innal  activity.      .M„„„l..,.  ,1 i.hnu..  they  om..l.„...  r.c..«„i.ion,  .h...  i.   c...„„. Ion   wl.h  memory 

of  former  co^nLion;  .tlmula.ed  fr.m,  within,  they  eon»ti.u.e  reo.lkc.ion.-iM.u,d.ley.  l'hy.iolo„y  o.  .Mmd,  ,.a„c  s>4. 


J44 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawing 


Illustration  201 


Illustration  202 


The  Caninc^oid  Fish — CarariT  hipposis 

This  fish  is  related  to  the  mackerel,  American  blue  fish  and  pilot  fish.    This  and  other  essential  facts 
about  it  arelearned  by  the  children  as  they  draw  or  model  the  form. 

of  form  among  the  fi.she.s.       Some  seem  all  head,  some  nearly  all  tail,  soire 
are  without  fins,  some  with  fins  like  wings. 

Fish  are  beautiful  examples  of  color.  It  is  important  to  draw  the 
attention  of  the  children  to  this.  The  colors  are  iridescent,  pearlv,  and 
brilliant  to  a  wonderful  degree  in  some  fishes :  when  thev  first  come  out  of 

the  water,  they  gleam  like  a  rain- 
bow. Get  the  children  to  recall 
these  impressions.  In  man}- 
schools  and  homes  small  acpiari- 
ums  afford  good  opportunity  to 
stud)-  the  movements  of  living 
fish.  Small  fish  have  just  as  beau- 
tiful mo\-ements  as  the  large 
ones.  After  some  of  my  talks 
the  children  take  a  joy  in  visiting 
the  fish  markets.  Xotliing  is 
more  beautiful  in  color  than  a 
lieap  of  shad,  herring,  mackerel. 
lobsters,  crabs,  and  shell  fish, 
when  just  out  of  the  water,  and 
children,  when  they  once  become 
interested,  are  fascinated  and  register  many  vivid  impressions  in  various 
forms.  Encourage  them  to  look  at  these  things.    Hardly  anv  one  can  go  to  a 


Angel  Fish 


Life  Forms  and  Memory  Drawing; 


145 


fish  market,  when  the  fish  are  beginning  to  arrive,  without  seeing  crowds  of 
men  and  boys,  usually  idlers,  looking  at  the  splendid  forms,  the  beautiful 
curves,  the  variety  of  color,  as  the  fish  slide  aljout.  If  anything  ex- 
ceptional, like  a  large  turtle  or  sturgeon,  is  on  view,  there  will  be  a  crowd 
around  it  for  some  time.  There  is  something  more  than  idle  curiosity 
here,  there  is  so  powerful  an  attraction  in  these  strange  and  beautiful  forms 
that  the  attention  of  even  the  most  careless  is  compelled  for  a  little  while. 

This  is  the  thing  to  lay  hold  of.  with  children,  and  it  is  a  divine  energy 
poured  out  on  every  one.    On  this  we  must  build  if  we  wish  to  get  them  in- 

lllustration  203 


ShvvftnhcaA  —  Arrhnnarfftu 

A  lirj:i'  iinti  v:ilujblc  spirold  food  fish,     .So  cillcd  from  the  f.incicd  n.-scinbluncc  nf  it« 

head  and  front  trcth  to  those  of  a  sheep. 


oculated  with  the  love  of  nature  and  the  beauty  and  the  joy  that  follow  if 

this  is  cultivated  to  the  higher  stage.       This  energy  nnist  be  cultivated  and 

conserved,  otherwise,    like  other  vivid  impressions  of  youth,  it  fades  away, 

and  finally,  in  a  great  tnany  cases,  is  wholly  lost.       It  must  be  cultivated 

skillfully  and  systematically  from  stage  to  stage.       This  a  true  teacher  will 

do  without  taking  the  life  out  of  the  work  by  tedious,  needless  repetitions 

of  tirc>;(inu-  forinulas.  grade<l  steps,  definitions,  etc. 

Typical  Forms. — I  use  fish  forms  throughout  all  the  grades.    In  the 

first  grade  I  find  the  children  fascinated   in   drawing  a   fish,   while  in   the 
10 


146 


Manual-Training;  Drawing 


Illustration  204 


liighest  grades  they  are 
pleased  to  make  various 
fisli  forms  and  also  to  ideal- 
ize them  in  the  way  of  dol- 
phins of  various  shapes. 
The  experience  of  many 
vears  has   taught   that  the 


chiU 


the  liesrinning  must 


Tie  Silver  Moonfish—  Vomer  attipennis) 
Called  also  Blunt-Nosed  Shiner. 


have  a  concrete  generalized 
fish  form  in  its  mind,  a  kind 
of  type  form  if  you  like,  one 
that  has  the  usual  spines  on 
its  back,  the  tail  at  the  end, 
fins  on  the  side,  gills,  etc., 
but  which  is  not  the  picture  of  any  special  fish.  But  I  find  that  when  the 
children  have  once  become  able  to  make  this  generalized  fish  form  with 
facility  (and  by  making  it,  I  mean  when  the  connection  has  been  thoroughly 
established  between  their  finger  tips  and  their  brains  so  that  they  can  re- 
produce it  automatically  as  they  think  of  fish),  the  moment  they  think  of 
spines,  the  spines  grow  on  the  back;  the  moment  they  think  of  tail,  the 
tail  rays  out  from  behind:  the  moment  they  think  of  fins,  the  fins  are  placed 
in  position  automatically;  while  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  scales.  I 
find  also,  if  this  form  is  tlioroughly  organized  into  the  mental  fabric,  that 
children,  when  they  have  special  fish  forms  presented  to  them,  can  readily 
grasp  the  differences  antl  the  resemblances,  and  with  \ery  little  practice  be- 
come able  to  delineate  these  forms. 

Speaking  Through  the  Finger  Tips.  — This  is  the  manner  in  which  I 
should  wish  all  drawing  to  be  done,  and  the  way  in  which  I  have  en- 
deavored to  make  my  pupils  work.  It  has  proven  to  be  quite  successful. 
To  me  this  method  is  in  accord  with  the  usual  process  of  mental  develop- 
ment, it  being  simply  the  assimilation  of  certain  impressions  till  they  are 
made  permanent  and  can  be  reproduced  through  the  finger  tips,  just  as  we 
assimilate  impressions  and  through  other  motor  reactions  give  utterance  to 
our  ideas  vocally  or  in  writing.  The  time  is  coming  when  people  will 
speak  with  their  finger  tips  as  well  as  their  tongues.  I  mean  the  common 
people,  not  simply  a  few  geniuses.   I  believe  that  there  is  a  larger  proportion 


^     Life  Forms  and  Memory  Drawing  J  47 

than  we  think  of  people  wlio  are  gifted  in  this  (hrection.  and  I  see  no  reason 
why  the  hand  should  not  respond  to  any  idea  or  thought  as  instantly  as  the 
tongue  usually  does.  In  education,  I  have  found  that  working  in  this 
direction  is  perfectly  practicable;  that  the  instrumentalities  in  all  children 
and  their  powers  and  capacities  seem  as  though  they  were  specially  en- 
dowed to  this  end.  I  really  helieve  that  all  hands  are  capable,  in  the  way  of 
art  work,  of  responding  in  an  exceptional  degree  to  some  environment,  or 
to  some  of  the  varied  conditions  of  nature. 

Notice  the  children  drawing  firsli  forms  in  lUus.  J05.  These  are  gen- 
eralized forms.  In  making  them  tlie  children,  of  course,  have  had  the  real 
fish,  a  plaster  model,  or  a  diagram,  to  study.  I  am  not  as  firmly  set  as 
some  teachers  on  the  subject  fif  copying  from  models  all  the  time  I 
find  that  a  photograph  or  print  will  call  up  a  good  memory  of  the  various 
parts  of  a  fish  to  children,  especially  if  they  are  encouraged  to  look  at  and 
memorize  the  real  forms.  I  find  every  day  that  it  is  more  important  to  get  the 
children  to  mentally  recall  form  than  it  is  to  imitate  it  from  the  object.  Of 
course  some  imitation  must  come  first,  but  the  fine  technic  is  a  matter  of 
years,  and  the  ideas  of  form  can  be  growing  meantime.  But  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  merit  and  discipline  in  getting  the  children  to  endeavor  to  make 
tactual  impressions  on  paper  of  even  the  complex  things  they  cannot  readily 
have  before  them,  like  a  horse,  for  instance,  that  they  have  seen 
on  the  street.  If  you  speak  of  a  car  horse  or  a  cab  horse  or  a  horse  in  any 
of  the  v.agons  coming  along  the  street,  and  mention  several  parts  of  its 
form,  the  children  usually  look  ft)r  these  things  the  next  time  they  see  the 
horse. 

I  frequently  ask  them  to  draw  a  shad  during  the  shad  season,  and  find 
they  do  not  know  its  shajjc.  They  have  forgotten.  i)erha|)s,  the  sliape  of  its 
spinal  fin  or  its  tail  or  the  bulk  of  its  head.  l.el  them  do  the  best  they 
can  for  the  lesson,  and  then  request  them  tt)  look  at  the  shad,  ami  you  will 
find  that  the  next  time  they  draw  they  have  a  very  vivid  impression  or- 
ganized in  the  min<l.  of  spinal  fin  or  tail  or  head,  usually  an  impression  tliat 
is  organized  so  that  the  concept  never  fades.  It  is  to  get  this  knowlcilge 
to  come  to  the  finger  tips,  instinctively  on  command,  that  we  work. 

Importance  of  StmpUcityi.—Xotkv  that  the.se  diagrams  nl  fish  that  the 
children  arc  drawing  .irc  very  sinqjlc,  that  they  contain  the  fewest  lines  pos- 
sible.      From  the  veiy  beginning  the  essential  features  of  form  should  be 


H8 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


Illustration  205 


Memory  Drawing  of  Fish  Forms 
Tlic  chiltlrL-n  are  practicing  drawing  various  fisli  from  memory,  to  m:il<e  different  sizes  and  proportions,  and  to 
malu-  lliem  turn  in  different  positions.  Tlie  cliild  sliould  get  facility  of  expression  with  a  few  essential  features,  before 
inucli  in  tlie  way  of  detail  is  rcciuired. 


grasped  with  a  few  touches.  If  I  give  a  fish  form  to  a  student,  of  any  age, 
wlio  is  not  practiced  in  our  metliod,  there  is  usually  an  attempt  to  represent 
a  maze  of  details,  and  the  fish  form  or  otlier  form  is  lost  in  the  endeavor  to 
])ut  down  unessential  features.  To  grasp  the  "  essential"  features  and  "  to 
purge  the  form  of  superfluities"  is  of  course  the  artistic  part  of  the  work, 
and  this  point  the  teacher  can  illustrate  in  different  ways  by  showing  good 
sketches,  diagrams,  and  pictures  by  good  artists.      Invariably    it    is    found 


Life  Forms  and  Memory  Drawing  J49 

that  ^rcat  artists  simplify  things.  Ami  in  drawing  as  a  moilc  of  expres 
sion, — the  kind  of  drawing  that  we  wish  to  get. — this  simplicity  and 
strength  is  what  we  aim  for.  There  is  no  harm  in  the  beginning  to  have 
little  children  copy  one  of  these  tish  forms  from  the  teacher's  diagram  on 
the  blackboard,  or  from  a  chart  or  a  good  photograph.  The  teacher  can 
also  have  real  fish,  bongiit  for  a  few  pennies,  on  the  desk;  can  have  a 
stufTed  fish,  a  pla.ster  model,  or  a  living  fish  in  a  globe.  He  must  aid  the 
child,  however,  to  get  a  certain  proportion  in  this  work,  jnst  as  it  gets  a 
certain  proportion  in  a  leaf  or  an  a])])le.  The  teacher  must  direct  attention  to 
the  radiation  of  the  spines  and  hns,  the  marking  of  the  scales,  and  prac- 
tice must  be  given  in  making  these  forms  a  number  of  times,  till  the  propor- 
tion and  detail  of  the  cUfferent  parts  become  automatic. 

Then  the  teacher  can  let  the  children  make  the  fish  move  about — or 
take  dilTcrent  positions.  This  is  much  harder,  but  they  soon  conquer  it. 
To  make  the  fish  turn  around  or  swim  up  or  swim  down,  or  flaj)  over,  is  quite 
difiicult,  but  if  they  have  once  conquered  the  generalized  form,  so  that  it  is 
automatic,  they  can  very  soon  become  able  to  make  the  same  forms  move 
about,  and  they  take  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in  doing  so. 

c/l  Wdrning. — Do  not  expect  the.se  things  to  come  in  two  or  three  les- 
sons. Kemember,  though  you  can  give  a  little  child  these  forms,  that  it 
usually  has  eight  years  of  school  time  in  which  to  practice.  The  children 
you  see  in  our  illustrations  drawing  these  forms  have  become  able  to  make 
any  kind  of  fish  in  any  kind  of  position,  just  as  readily  as  they  sjieak  Of 
course  it  is  a  matter  of  years.  It  is  a  very  foolish  teacher  who  expects  .a 
child  to  make  a  fish  or  other  animal  turn  around  in  a  few  lessons,  a  thing 
that  some  artists  cannot  do  (if  they  are  rc<iucsted)  after  years  of  experience, 
simply  because  they  do  not  draw  from  memory,  by  the  ex])ression  of  ideas, 
but  by  imitation.  They  must  imitate  some  form  before  theiu,  they  have 
never  done  anything  else. 

This  is  usually  the  trouble  with  many  of  ilie  art  sciiools. — there  is 
imitation  of  models  and  sketching  from  models  endlessly,  with  very  little 
memory  work.  I  liclieve  if  a  qu;irter  of  the  time  spent  in  looking  at  models 
was  given  to  recalling,  without  the  model,  tin-  !mpir-,Ni,  ,iis  in.idi-  ti\  it  'muh 
more  valuable  results  would  be  obtained. 

Variety  m  Forms. — When  tlic  children  have  facility  in  making  the 
fish  forms,  as  illustrated,  drawing  them   with  ease,   allow  them   to  make 


t50 


Manual-Trainings  Drawing 


Illustration  206 


^s^' 

■ 

.    Xt; 

1 
■ 

BS?^ 

w 

The  Sea  Bass. 
A  large  marine  food  fish,  called  also  locally  blue  bass,  black  sea  bass,  black  fish,  blue  fish 
and  black  perch. 


varieties  of  fisli,  iong  and  slender,  short  and  thick,  etc.,  and  encourage  them 
to  look  at  fish. 

Invite  them  to  catch  fish.  If  we  register  the  vivid  impression 
that  comes  when  a  child  first  catches  a  fish  and  inspects  it  in  all  its  glory  of 
sparkling  color,  if  we  can  make  this  impression  vivid  and  organic  with  the 
joy  and  the  beauty  that  goes  with  it,  we  have  done  something  toward  de- 
veloping the  artistic  sense; — and  I  attach  much  importance  to  these  uncon- 
scious glimpses  of  nature  forms,  as  seen  in  the  fields,  the  streets  and  the 
markets.  Let  us  do  all  we  can  to  make  them  indelible  and  permanent,  es- 
pecially through  the  feelings  and  emotions.  This  can  only  be  done  by  fre- 
quently recalling  the  images  and  nailing  them  into  the  fa1)ric  of  the  mind  by 
deeds,  by  performance  of  actions  through  the  dififerent  channels  of  human 
activity.  For  our  purpose  we  do  it  l)y  recalling  and  recording  the  forms 
as  often  as  possible  on  i)aper,  in  clay  and  in  wood.  Beware  of  making  any  of 
this  pleasant  and  cnjoyablework  a  task.  This  is  wlicre  the  teacher's  judg- 
ment and  skill  must  come  in.  Tlin)Ugh  the  same  door  tliat  yon  open  into 
the  mind,  this  energy  or  spirit  can  fly  away.     Watch,  therefore. 

Invite  the  chiklren  to  try  to  represent  fish  forms  that  they  have  ex- 
perience of  and  with  which  they  are  familiar.  They  become  sometimes 
especially  fascinated  by  strange  fish  forms,  and  it  is  well,  if  \'ou  lia\c  the 


Life  Forms  and  Memory  Drawing: 


151 


facilities,  to  show  them  pictures  of  these  or  make  pictures  of  them  on  the 
blackboartl. — a  sliark,  for  instauce.  a  t1\  iug  fish,  or  some  of  the  many  various 
forms  with  special  peculiarities. 

By  degrees  various  adjuncts  of  the  fish  form  can  he  tauglu  to  them, 
Willi  the  names  of  the  different  parts,  like  the  diagram  on  ]iage  153.  These 
technical  terms  and  others  have  a  more  or  less  complex  character,  accord- 
ing to  the  grade  of  pupils  that  are  receiving  instruction,  but  they  can  readily 
be  fixed  in  the  mind  by  this  method. 

I  have  many  children  who  know  the  names  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
fish,  which  they  can  express  with  ease  by  drawing.  To  get  them  to  memorize 
the  names  of  the  first  dorsal,  the  second  dorsal,  the  pectoral  fin.  the  ventral, 
anal  and  caudal  fins,  and  other  difficult  technical  names,  without  some  means 
of  systematically  reproducing  them,  is  a  hardship,  and  one  of  the  things 
from  which  the  present  schools  suffer.     It  is  unreasonable  to  task  the  mind. 


Ur.uvlnif  I''Ish  Ktmn*  Fr»nn  .Mi-intirv 
Thr  childrrn  aira  write  or  print  the  nuiiic  of  each  viulcly  unik-r  llx  fiinii,  no  Ihiil  Ihcy  mvir  f"r(jcl  It. 


152 


Manual-Training:  Drawings 


the  verlxil  memory,  with  such  things.  Placed  in  the  mind,  however,  by 
these  instrumentahties,  learning-,  and  even  the  practice  of  expressing  ab- 
stract thought  in  symbols,  becomes  a  delight  and  a  pleasure,  and  is  con- 
tinued with  ease. 

Encourage  the  children  to  notice  the  strong  erect  lines  of  the  spines, 
the  stiff,    springy   look.      In    some   positions   fish   assume    most    beautiful 


Illustration  :oS 


.X\ 


\ 


®X/^ 


Fish  Forms  in  Design 


curves  and  when  the  children  begin  to  ideal- 
ize these  forms,  very  fine  designs  and  sugges- 
tions can  be  received  from  them.  Notice  the 
many  varieties  of  form  in  which  the  fish  is 
used  in  combination  with  other  forms. 

Fish  Forms  in  Design. — Like  other  animal  forms,  the  fish  is  much 
used  in  decorative  work,  and  gives  additional  beauty  to  some  parts.  The 
scales  are  used  for  surface  decoration  of  many  kinds.  Practice  in 
drawing  scales  so  that  they  fit  is  one  of  the  exercises  that  I  give  chil- 
dren at  certain  periods.  To  draw  scales  so  that  they  are  equal  in  size  and 
fit  nicely,  so  that  they  gradually  diminish  or  increase  in  size,  compels  a 
wonderful  amount  of  attention,  and  requires  a  great  amount  of  manual 
skill.  To  do  it  successfully  in  certain  materials,  like  clay  and  wood,  re- 
quires fine  manual  training.  Further  suggestions  for  the  use  of  fish  forms 
in  design  are  described  and  illustrated  in  Chapter  \'III  of  this  book. 

In  making  work  of  the  highest  character,  of  the  most  beaut\",  it  is  im- 
portant that  we  should  know  as  mucii  as  possible  about  fish  forms  antl  their 
color.  The  more  intimate  we  are  with  these  things,  the  more  wisdom  and 
the  more  knowledge  we  can  put  into  the  designs  that  we  idealize  or  ideate 
from  them.      Very  few  people  can  really  enter  into  the  pleasure  and  the  joy 


Life  Forms  and  Memory  Drawing 


153 


of  some  of  the  great  works  of  tlic  best  periotls  of  ditTerent  iiatii)ii?>,  simply 
because  tliey  do  not  see  the  connection  l)et\veen  tlie  natural  forms  anil  tlic 
idealized  forms.  Some  of  ilie  most  beautiful  and  wonderful  of  the  Japanese 
and  Chinese  dolphins,  dragons  and  grotesques  are  made  from  idcalizeil  fish 
forms.  It  is  an  adtled  pleasure  and  joy  in  life  to  be  able  to  perceive  the 
beautiful  as  rendered  even  by  "  ])agans"'  and  other  curious  peoples. 

Fish  forms  should  be  modeled  in  clay  continually,  especially  if  a  vivid 
memory  of  the  form  is  desired.  They  also  make  beautiful  decorative  forms 
for  various  purposes. 

General  Remarks^ — I  have  given  this  lesson  on  tish  forms  enlarged  and 
at  length  simply  to  illustrate  and  suggest  a  few  points  to  instructors  that 
can  be  applied  equally  to  all  forms,  the  same  ideas  and  movements  applying 
to  everything" created  and  suitalile  for  instruction.  Stupid  and  dumb  is  the 
teacher  who  cannot,  even  in  the  most  degrailed  and  forlorn  cn\ironment, 
get  the  connnon  bits  of  nature  that  are  so  silently  eloquent.  Make  even 
the  sticks  and  stones  and  grass  speak  to  and  through  the  hand,  the  head 
and  the  heart ! 


Illustration  310 


N.ilurtr  Study 
Dniwinu'  .1  i'h:irt  to  indiciiti:  luchnical  n.'uni-!i  nf  the  ilifTvrcnl  |i;irtii 


Plate  Eleven 


ja^rg^ 


DrawinfcT  from  Nature 
Rapid  sketches  are  made  of  the  movement?;  of  the   dog.    This  work   is  difficult  at  Arst,   but  if  th*; 
pupil  models  the  form  also,  accurate  memories  of  form  are  received  .ind  made  permanent. 


(154) 


Illustrations  211-213 


Various  positiou:>  of  Uit  ^ame  shell,  as  memorized  by  Ihc  children.  The  shells  being  fine  in  form  are  good 
models. 

CHAPTER  Vn 

Drawing  from 
Nature  and  from 
Memory  * 

IK  TVVL'RE  IS  THE  BEST  DESIGXER.  Our  pupils  nnist  assimilate 
/  \  a  variety  of  impressions  from  nature  l)eforc  we  can  expect  them 
to  create  <ine\v.  Take  shells,  for  instance.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  think  of  a  new  shell. the  entire  field  seems  to  be  exhausted  by  nature. shells 
being  of  every  conceivable  variety.  It  seems  as  though  nature  had  worked 
out  every  possibility  to  its  utmost  exaggeration.  We  have  shells  thick,  shells 
thin,  shells  long  and  slender,  .shells  very  short  and  thick,  with  spikes,  spines, 
processes,  ad  infinitum.  Before  drawing  shells  it  is  advisable  for  the 
teacher,  and  the  pupils  also,  to  make  a  few  diagrams,  illustrating  the  growth 
of  shells  by  addition  to  the  margin,  as  pictured  in  N'o.  -'14.  Tlicy  can  be 
made  to  take  much  interest  in  the  growth  and  structure  of  the  shell.  It  is 
advisalile  to  explain  to  them  how  and  why  shells  assume  the  dilTerent 
shapes,  from  the  fiat,  scalloped  to  the  pointed,  spiral  form. 

Simple  diagrams  should  l)e  ma<Ie  at  first,  almost  conventionalized  forms 
if  you  prefer,  and  study  should  be  made  of  shells  simple  in  form.  like  the 
scalloped  shell,  spiral  shell,  cockle  shell,  clam  shell,  etc.  If  .some  of  these 
arc  in  jiairs  and  doubled  (Illus.  .215).  it  makes  a  still  more  interesting  picture, 
and  the  ciiildren  grasp  the  relation  of  actual  shell  forms  to  some  of  the 
beautiful  idealized  shell  forms  in  ornament. 

•Aft  much  a«  possible,  nature  lorms  should  be  uned  in  drawing.  Good  work,  hnwcvcr,  can  also  l>c  done 
Iiom  photographs  and  liooks.     Diagrams  from  books  arc  used  severaltinirs  hen-in  as  suggestii>n». 

(•55) 


J56 


Manual-Training:  Drawing 


Drawing  from  the  Object 
All  sizes  of  shells  can  be  drawn  in  the  hand  this 
way  and  form  memorized.     Small  shells  of  beanti- 
ful  form  and  variety  can  be  purchased  cheaply. 


"'''''"''°"  '''  It  is  good    practice    to    draw  the 

shell  freehand  on  the  lioard  from  one 
held  in  the  hand,  making  different 
\-ie\vs.  then  memorizing  them,  like  the 
illnstration  214.  There  is  no  better 
practice  in  drawing  and  color  work 
than  can  be  received  from  making  ac- 
curate drawings  of  l)eautiful  shell 
forms.  Shells  can  be  purchased  in 
some  instances  for  ten  cents  a  quart. 
In  a  quart  of  such  shells  scores  of  per- 
fect and  l)eautiful  specimens  can  be 
fountl.  The}'  last  a  long  time  and  the 
children,  if  they  are  inspired  properly, 

are  never  tired  of  looking  at  them.        Shells  are  among  the  best  things  we 

have  for  teaching  color.     Some  of  them  are  perfect  poems  of  color,  and  as 

they     can     be     bought     illustration  215 

very   cheaply,    they  are 

among  the  best  things 

vve  can  have  for  school 

models.      The  children 

have  learned  one  of  the 

most    desirable   lessons 

when  they  begin  to  ap- 
preciate the  wonderful 

architecture    spun    into 

a    shell,    its    form,    its 

color,  its  structure  and 

texture.       When    they 

can  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree  r  e  pr  o  d  u  c  e   its 

beauty,  proportion  and 

fitness   in   actions   that  r.     ■     r      ,.  ■ .      .,    ^u- 

Drawmg  irom  Memory  and  Irom  the  Object 

are  themselves  fit  and  beautiful,  the  shell  has  fulfilled  one  of  its  missions. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  talk  about  the  expensiveness  of  school  models. 
It  is  simply  an  excuse  made  by  some  ignorant  people  for  the  barrenness  and 


Drawing:  From  Memory 


157 


bareness  of  the  ordinary  common  school  room.  A  bright  teaclier  can 
collect  or  gather  clam  shells  and  oyster  shells  that  are  perfect  in  form  and 
color.  Sometimes  a  clean  oyster  shell  is  a  revelation  of  jjcrfect  colors  and 
tints,  being  iridescent,  translncent.  pearly,  etc.  The  greatest  scientists 
or  artists  could  require  nothing  better  or  conceive  anything  so  (it.  It 
is  ]iussible.  for  two  or  three  ilollars,  to  get  a  collection  of  shells  of  the  com- 
moner varieties  that  would  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of  a  class  room  for  man\ 
years.      The  same  is  true  of  other  forms. 

I  find  usually  that  this  idea  of  lack  of  materials  is  more  a  matter  of  ig- 
norance than  anything  else.  It  comes  from  a  barrenness  of  miml  which  is 
an  outgrowth  of  the  common  idea,  so  fixed  in  the  mind  of  most  people,  tliat 
reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  are  the  main  things.        Fortunately  that 

(lustrations  216-217 


Shill  Forms 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  lines  in  dcsiipi  and  ornament  have  oeen  taken  from  »hcll  form*.  No  >ludy 
will  bro.iden  and  exp.-ind  the  mind  more  quickly  than  tn  assimulatc,  fimt  hand  direct  from  the  shell,  complete 
ideas  of  line  lines,  curves,  structure,  texture,  color,  etc. 


time  is  passing  by.  and  we  are  beginning  to  find  school  rooms  filleil  with 
appropriate  things.  I  read  in  a  recent  paper  the  account  of  a  new  school  in 
a  large  city  where  the  committee  are  actually  reiiucsting  the  sum  of  $100.- 
000  for  plant  and  fi.xtures  alone.      I  knov  by  ex|)erience  that,  unfortunately, 


158 


Manual-Training:  Drawing 


riustrations  2if-2iq 


Inside  and  Outside  ofthe  Same  Shell 

a  great  deal  of  this  money  will  be  spent  for  elaborate  furniture,  cumbersome 
desks  and  closets,  etc.       But  the  beginning  of  the  new  era  is  upon  us. 

Blackboard  Work. — Shells  should  be  drawn  on  tiie  blackboard  at  in- 
tervals. Allow  the  children  to  select  any  shell  they  desire  and  to  make  dif- 
ferent freehand  views  of  it  on  the  blackboard.       The  shell  can  be  held  in 


Illustrations  220-221 


^  1  \^' 

1 

''"^"-^mt/^^wit^:- 

Lesson  From  Shells 
The  examples  ot  tani^cntial  curwilure,  radiation,  transition  of  curves,  etc.,  are  perfect  on  shells.    The 
chihlren  should  be  carefully  instructed  to  study  and  reproduce  these  qualities  in  pencil  and  with  color.    Some 
of  the  scallop  shells  art:  much  used  in  carved  work. 


Drawing  From  Memory  J59 

the  left  hand  wliile  iloinij  this,  ami  even  very  small  shells  can  be  useil.  At 
first  allow  the  drawings  to  be  as  simple  as  diagrams  and  of  the  easiest  views, 
gradually  attempting  the  more  complex  positions,  as  facility  is  gained.  Re- 
member that  the  first  object  of  this  work  is  to  store  the  memory  wit!i  im- 
pressions of  shell.  To  enable  the  mind  to  vividly  recall  or  recollect  shell, 
these  exercises  should  be  repeated  until  typical  shells  can  be  drawn  from 
memory.  Lead-pencil  sketches  for  detail  should  be  maile,  and  also,  if  pos- 
sible, sketches  in  color. 

Shells  should  also  be  modeled  in  clay,   producing  both  realistic  and 
conventional  cojjies. 

^ird  ^Orms, — Little  children  can  begin  to  draw  bird  forms.  The  con- 
cefit  or  tyi)icai  iilea  of  bird  is  made  up.  to  the  child,  of  the  \arious  impres- 
sions it  has  received  from  the  birtls  with  which  it  has  been  familiar.  (See 
illustrations  of  children  drawing  birds  on  pages  i6o  and  i6i.  It  does  not 
matter  how  crude  the  first  attemi)ts  are.  It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  chil- 
dren to  make  simple  diagrams  of  birds'  heads,  like  those  of  the  pigeon,  crow, 
hawk,  parrot,  paroquette,  eagle,  and  so  on;  or  of  the  conmion  chicken,  the 
rooster,  the  duck,  the  goose,  the  swan  and  others.  Side  views  of  the  duck 
swimming  are  perhaps  as  simple  as  anything  in  the  beginning. 

Endeavor  to  get  the  children  to  think  of  the  shape  of  birds.  Simple 
diagrams  or  drawings  can  be  made  on  the  blackboard  of  very  different 
shapes  of  birds,  for  instance,  the  crane,  the  stork,  the  heron,  and  then  birdsof 
opposite  characteristics,  like  the  owl  and  the  eagle.  .\  simple  bird  form, 
like  the  sparrow  or  any  small  bird  that  can  be  readily  procureil,  should  be- 
come automatic.  The  children  should  be  made  by  repetition  able  to  put 
this  form  down  without  trouble  from  memory.  When  this  can  be  done 
readily,  then  the  bird  should  be  placed  in  dilTerent  ])ositions  ami  the  cliiUl 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  drawings  of  these  positions  and  to  mem- 
orize them.  .\llow  the  children  to  attempt  these  different  jjositions  on  the 
blackboards.  ( )f  course  to  render  a  bird  flying  or  spreading  its  wings  is 
difficult,  and  it  recpiires  a  knowledge  that  you  must  not  expect  from  chil 
dren  in  the  beginning.  Rut  as  they  become  able  to  place  the  sim|)le  forms 
in  various  positions,  and  as  they  get  more  practice,  in  drawing,  of  the  dif- 
ferent things  refjuircd  in  their  different  studies,  so  they  will  become  able  to 
make  these  comjjlex  forms  with  greater  case  than  one  would  think  possible 
if  it  be  attempted  to  remler  them  without  this  previous  work. 


J  60 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawing 


lIIu<;tration  12 


I'rimary  Work  by  Little  Children 
Drawingbird  forms,  dogs,  cats,  etc.,  from  memory-,  in  difl'erent  positions 


Encourage  the  children  to  notice  different  kinds  of  birds,  as  the 
canaries  at  home,  the  parrots,  and  other  birds  they  see  when  they  go  to  the 
zoological  gardens,  or  the  common  birds  seen  in  the  country.  Encourage 
them  to  make  drawings  of  these  things,  even  while  they  are  moving  about. 
I  have  numbers  of  children  who  can  do  this  readily.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  a  bird  should  be  stuffed  or  that  it  should  be  dead  before  you  can  see 
the  length  of  its  bill  or  the  size  of  its  head.  If  a  child  is  looking  at  a 
flamingo  walking  about,  making  its  peculiar  motions  in  the  water,  it  can 
notice  the  strange  shape  of  the  bill,  the  wonderful  length  and  beautiful 
curving  of  the  neck,  the  remarkable  length  and  structure  of  the  legs,  and 
other  particulars  without  any  trouble.  It  should  be  able  also  to  make  a 
drawing  or  tactual  record  of  these  remarkable  points.       It  does  not  matter 


Drawing  From  Memory 


161 


if  the  bird  bends  its  neck  while  the  drawing  is  being  made:  it  is  still  the  same 
bird  and  neck.  With  very  little  encouragement  children  become  able  to 
grasp  the  form  and  reproduce  it,  even  when  the  moilel  is  moving.  This 
is  a  great  and  desirable  step  in  drawing. 

It  is  only  the  most  stupid  kind  of  peo])le  who  think  that  the  living 
forms  must  jjose  before  them  to  enable  them  to  grasp  the  shape.  The 
children  you  see  working  in  the  pictures  here  given  have  made  many  of 
the  drawings  from  living  forms.  They  can  also  make  very  good  ilrawings 
of  the  same  forms  in  any  position  without  the  models.  The  chickens  have 
been  drawn  while  walking  about,  the  same  witli  the  parrots. 

Of  course  in  the  beginning  bad  drawings  result.  Xo  one  can  make 
six  or  eight  diagrams  of  a  crane  without  making  the  last  diagram  better 
than  the  first,  if  they  have  a  crane  t)r  a  picture  or  model  of  one  to  refer  to. 


Illustration  22  ^ 


.Memory  Dniwiog 
Thcuc bird  lormi  have  tKinmcmort/cd   mm  »pctimcn«  phoU>({rapln.d  in  llin  book.    This  pupil  can 
draw  any  oflhc  blrdn  in  difTcrcntpu&itioos  from  mcmury, 


J62  Manual-Training  Drawing 

Illustration  224 


Enlarging  DrawingfS  from  Sketch  Book 
The  samefomis  should  be  drawn  in  many  positions  and  memorized. 

It  is  the  constant  repetition,  the  association  of  idea  witli   movement,  the 
constant  endeavor  to  reproduce,  that  ultimately  leads  to  achievement. 

And  do  not  expect  likenesses,  actual  portraits  of  these  forms,  from  lit- 
tle children.        If  they  get   any  idea  of  the  form  in   the  beginning,   they 
should  be  encouraged.       When  they  have  had  sufficient  practice  with  this 
Illustration  225 


Bird  studies 
Variety  of  liirds'  bills,  drawn  from  Webster's  dictionary.    The  teacher  is  giving 
an  object  lesson  to  a  class. 


Drawing  From  Memory  J63 

memory  drawing,  some  can  reproduce  images  with  the  utmost  fidelity,  and 
it  is  remarkable  wliat  an  amount  of  observation  they  disclose  and  of  acute 
perception  of  details  that  they  can  render.  Xever  expect  them  to  render 
forms  without  first  assimilating  impressions  from  tiie  real  things,  or  from 
prints,  pictures  or  drawings  of  some  kind.  They  must  be  constantly  sent 
to  the  source,  to  the  thing  itself,  to  receive  fresh  impressions. 

By  degrees  they  will  lose  the  desire  to  sit  and  imitate  detail  by  detail, 
and  this  is  a  valuable  quality  we  wish  them  to  get. — the  power  of  being  able 
to  mentally  photograph  the  object  they  look  at,  and  then  to  revive  it  later; 
to  be  able  to  recall  it  with  its  original  vividness  of  form,  color,  light  and 
shade. — its  essential  qualities.  That  this  can  be  done  and  well  done  by 
children  I  am  convinced  from  the  product  that  we  get  in  our  schools.  It 
it  is  done  systematically  throughout  all  the  years  of  school  life,  I  claim  that 
we  will  have  a  product  that  will  be  much  more  valuable  than  any  yet  at- 
taine<l      A*^  teachers,  this  is  what  we  must  aim  for. 

Color  in  Birds.  — Let  the  children  study  a  feather.  Beautiful  lessons 
can  be  given  on  a  feather.  .And  then,  wings!  Is  there  anything  more 
beautiful  in  the  world  than  a  wing,  in  its  wonderful  structure,  form,  texture, 
color?  A  few  wings  of  different  kinds  should  be  drawn  repeatedly  till  the 
children  can  automatically  reproduce  the  overlapping  of  the  pin  feathers 
and  the  short  feathers,  just  as  they  draw  the  scales  of  a  fish  or  any  other 
detail.  There  is  nothing  more  beautiful  in  the  worl<l  than  the  appearance 
of  some  flying  birds;  the  spread  of  wing, 
the  gradation  of  form  shown  by  the  Ulustratiomie 
feathers,  the  regularity,  strength  and  beauty 
of  movement  must  impress  the  most  care- 
less. ChiKlrcn  can  be  encouraged  to  make 
simple  diagrams  of  tlying  birds,  like  the 
pigeon  or  the  sea  gull.  an<l  they  will  very 
readily  when  they  see  these  birds  watch 
their    movements  and    make  visual  notes 

of  their  difTerent  positions  when  flying.  The  same  is  true  of  birds 
swimming  in  the  water,  like  the  duck,  the  goose  ami  the  swan, — the  per- 
fection of  living  beauty,  grace,  and  fitness.     (Illus.  2^2.) 

The  children  should  be  obliged  continually  to  notice  the  colors  of  birds. 
I  believe  we  can  get  more  real  knowledge  of  the  tints,  the  tones  and  shad- 


164 


Manual-Training;  Drawing 


ows,  and  the  harmonies  of  color  from  a  dead  sparrow  or  a  pigeon  or  the 
head  of  a  chick  than  from  all  the  books  and  stained  papers  that  have  ever 
been  printed,  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  color.  Some  colors  on  birds 
are  ravishing.  They  shine  like  jewels,  and  there  is  a  flashing  effulgency 
and  a  delicate  iridescence  on  the  neck  of  a  pigeon  that  will  in  a  measure 
reproduce  the  soft  glowing  radiance  of  the  heavens,  to  the  heart  who  can 

Illustratiun  227 


Enlarging  and  Memory  Drawings 
Of  birds  in  various  positions  from  sketch  book.    The  original  sketches  were  made  from  the  acal  birds. 


look  at  it  with  sufficient  love.  If  there  is  anything  in  education  that  we 
ought  to  cherish  and  to  nourish,  it  must  be  this;  to  give  the  children  a  feeling 
for  these  things,  to  touch  their  emotions  if  we  can,  to  infect  them  with  the 
almighty  energy  of  the  love  of  nature.  These  experiences  help  to  develop 
desirable  phases  of  character  in  the  young,  which  are  seldom  reached  by 
other  means.  Other  l)ird  forms  are  shown  on  page  179,  and  elsewhere  in 
this  book. 

Botanical  Forms.— ^'P^Qndid  lessons  in  drawing  and  elementary  botany 
can  be  given.  Botanical  forms  are  especially  beautiful,  interesting  and 
useful  for  school  work.  The  simplest  leaves  and  flowers,  the  commonest 
weeds  and  grasses,  make  good  illustrations,  and  the  pupils  can  be  led  on 


Drawing-  From  Memory 


165 


from  the  simple  diagrams  made  of  these  forms  to  the  most  abstract  and  (Hf- 
ficvilt  scientific  work.  Tlie  difficult  nomenclature  used  in  botany  can  be 
memorized  without  effort  if  tlie  lessons  in  drawing  are  given  riglitly.  The 
tactual,  muscular  and  visual  impressions  seem  to  make  the  form  and  the 
name  stick  more  readily  in  the  memory.  They  can  be  recalled  more 
clearly  at  any  future  time. 

Take  the  horse-chestnut  leaf,  for  instance  (llhis.  230).  This  embodies 
the  whole  of  the  laws  which  are  to  he  desirctl  in  some  of  our  work.  It  has 
perfect  grace  of  form,  proportional  distribution  of  areas,  radiation  from 
parent  stem,  tangential  cur\ature  of  lines,  even  distribution  of  surface  dec- 
oration, repetition,  growth  and  a  number  of  other  minor  (|ualitics.  This 
is  also  true  of  an  assemblage  of  leaves, — with  their  ecjual  arrangement  of 
masses,  and  perfect  distribution  of  gruuii  or  groups. 

Try  to  make  the  students  enter  into  the  beauty  of  these  simple  forms. 

Illustration  228 


A  Lesson  Ui  Dniwintr  :iml  Mli-mrntun'  Ilotany 

Use  the  if.Tl  flower  fonns  lo  draw  from  as  often  an  possible,  llun  nieinorlte  the  chameterlslle  features,  «• 
desenl>e<l  in  (  h:iptir  VII.  The  last  flower  form  is  a  cross  section  of  a  daisy.  Small  drawing*  should  also 
be  made  in  pencil  and  color.  The  drill  work  in  Manual-Tr.iinini:  drawini;  in  the  present  and  prccedinn  cliap' 
tvrs  is  of  wonderful  value  in  impartintc  the  faculty  to  draw  from  object*  of  all  kinds. 


i66 


Manoal-Trainingf  Drawing 


Do  not  allow  them  to  create  freak  units.  When  we  have  such  a  wonderful 
range  in  nature  of  leaves,  flowers,  shells,  and  so  on,  it  seems  foolish  to  re- 
quire students  to  make  kite  imits  and  the  varieties  of  the  kite  imit,  as  some 
stupid  systems  do.  If  the  child  is  made  to  produce  these  forms,  they  are 
simply  wasting  valuable  time,  but  the  tendency  of  a  great  deal  of  the  present 
mode  of  culture  is  to  create  freaks.  All  the  objects  of  nature  are  beautiful, 
created  for  our  adiniration  and  for  our  study. 

For  instance,  take  the  leaves  in  illustration  Xo.  2t,o. — the  pedate, 
lobate,  crenate,  palmate,  cordate,  dendate,  binate,  and  other  leaves.  If 
these  are  drawn,  instantly  the  technical  name,  the  appearance  symbolized  by 

Illustration  229 


Drawingr  from  Fruit 
Fniit,  flowers,  foliag:e  should  be  drawn  and  memorized.     In  the  spring  many  kinds 
of  blossoms  make  attractive  studies.     Branches  of  foliage  alone  make  useful  models. 


the  name,  is  registered  permanently.  This  is  a  great  help  to  the  language 
work  of  the  chiklren,  especially  when  they  begin  to  dissect  the  plant  forms, 
and  the  work  from  the  many  different  parts  begins  to  be  complex. 

The  technical  names  can  be  mastered  without  any  trouble,  and  some  of 
these  technical  names  are  very  formidable,  even  those  describing  the  ap- 


Drawing  From  Memory 


167 


Illustration  230 


Ilotunical  DmwiciK 
In  thifl  drawing',  six  stajjcs  of  the  dandclinn  have  been  illustmtcd.  with  various  leaf  forms     These  diafpumt 
are  drawn  from  memory.     Accurate  tlrawinjjs  have  previously  been  made  with  pencil  from  the  plant 


Illustration  231 


Botanical  Drawlntr 
These  cut*  arc  from  Wcbutcr**  nictl<marj',  and  the  childrrn   mcmorJ/f  \hr 
technical  termA  with  the  form  by  rcpctitttm 


J6S 


Manual-Training  Drawing 


pearance  of  a  simple  leaf.  I  have  no  trouble  even  with  children  of  the 
grammar  schools  in  getting  them  to  remember  these  terms,  if  they  have  had 
sufficient  practice  in  making  the  diagrams  and  drawings,  with,  of  course, 
the  auditorv  impression  of  the  name  associated  with  the  drawing  at  the 
same  time.  Understand,  I  do  not  mean  notes  taken  at  random  during  a 
long,  tedious  talk  about  function,  growth  or  structure  of  various  plants  or 
flowers,  but  I  mean  the  close  attention  and  clear  perception  of  a  single  plant 
or  few  parts  of  the  plant,  until  a  complete  mental  structure  or  thought-fabric 
corresponding  to  the  plant  is  erected  in  the  mind  to  stay.  The  main  thing- 
is  to  actually  do  and  act  through  the  eye.  ear,  tongue,  touch,  muscular  sense, 
etc.,  instead  of  merely  reading  about  or  listening  to  a  lecture  upon  the  sub- 
ject. I  have  seen  so  many  classes  of  teachers  and  normal-school  graduates 
^vho  have  listened  to  thousands  of  facts  poured  out  in  a  stream,  and  who 
have  filled  scores  of  note  books  with  diagrams  and  notes,  yet  who  have 
failed  to  fix  in  the  mind  anything  about  their  work.  The  many  impressions 
have  obliterated  each  other  and  only  partial  ideas  result. 


The  perfection  of  living  beauty,  ^race  and  fitness 


Illustration  233 


Dolphin  Forraii  in  Conventional  D«:si)^a 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Conventional  and 
Symbolic  Forms 


D 


OLPHIXS  MAKE  VERY  BEAUTIFUL  FOR^[S  FOR  DRAW- 
ing.  It  is  very  easy  to  memorize  one  of  the  simplest  forms,  and 
tlien,  by  practice,  to  get  facilit\-  in  making  this  form  in  various  posi- 
tions, as  shown  above.  Do  not  let  the  dolphin  be  feeble-looking  or  weak, 
but  let  it  be  made  with  good  strong  curves  in  all  of  these  conventional 
shapes.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  begin  witii  a  form  .ilmost  as  simple  ;is  the  scroll 
itself  (Illus.  234).  and  then  make  it  a  little  more  complex,  in  ditTerenl  posi- 
tions, suggesting  the  mouth,  and  with  crockets  for  tins  and  spines. 

The  next  stage  shovdil  be  to  intro<luce  still  more  detail  in  the  head, 
putting  real  spines  and  fuis  in  dilTerent  positions,  as  in  J35.  Then  make  it 
more  elaborate  by  getting  all  the  characteristic  features  of  a  dolphin  in  good 
proportion  and  by  adding  scales,  a  good  tail,  form  and  even  with  wings,  if 
desired.  In  making  these  forms  for  decorative  purposes,  it  is  per- 
fectly pro])er  to  do  anything  one  i)leases  in  the  way  of  modification.  Units 
of  design  of  ail  kinds  cm  be  used  in  combination  with  the  form:  it  can 
turn  into  leaf  forms,  the  acanthus  leaf  being  frecpiently  used  in  this  com- 
bination. 

(169) 


J70 


Manual-Trainingf  Drawings 


I 


The  dolphin's  head  can  be  used  instead  of  the  scroll  termination  in  al- 
most all  patterns,  enriching  them  very  much  in  some  cases.  In  drawing 
this  form  in  patterns  see  that  it  becomes  an  actual  part  of  the  pattern.  Do 
not  make  it  look  stiff,  as  though  it  were  added.  It  should  grow  out  of  the 
pattern,  or  the  pattern  should  grow  out  of  it,  naturally.  Dolphins,  griffins 
and  grotesques  are  never  successful  and  cannot  be  drawn  with  much  success 
unless  they  form  part  of  the  design.       Do  not  use  them  too  frequently  in 


Illustrations  234-235 


the  same  pattern.  It  is  very  good  practice  to  make  the  body  take  different 
positions  for  certain  purposes,  as  suggested  in  the  headpiece  for  this  chapter. 

The  dolphin  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  forms  for  use  in  wood,  clay,  .stone 
and  metal.  The  fish  form  must  be  thorough!}'  studied  to  get  successful 
dolphins.  There  is  a  squirmy  appearance  about  a  dolphin  that  is  taken 
from  the  fish,  while  the  scaly  appearance  of  the  body,  the  eye,  the  spines  and 
the  fins  are  usually  fish  forms,  and  the  better  the  fish  is  known  the  better 
these  forms  can  be  reproduced.  To  carve  these  forms  successfully,  even 
after  the  form  has  become  pretty  familiar  by  drawing,  it  is  necessary  to 
model  them  in  clay  several  times. 

Grotesque  fish  forms  of  simple  character  can  also  be  made,  an  instance 
of  which  is  shown  in  Illus.  233.  These  are  all  suitable  for  designs  for 
various  purposes.  Make  the  simplest  forms  first,  and  as  they  become 
familiar   trv  the  more  elaborate  ones.       Anv  sfood  book  of  ornament  will 


Conventional  and  Symbolic  Forms 


171 


contain  dolphin  lorms,  but  it  is  still  better  to  see  monels  of  the  real  animal 
in  material  of  various  kintls. 

Griffins  also  are  conventional  or  idealized  animal  forms.  To  make 
successful  griffins,  pupils  must  understand  the  character  of  heads  of  dogs 
and  lions,  and  the  shape  of  their  bodies.  Griffins  can  be  winged,  they  can 
have  spines,  they  can  have  bodies  like  dolphins,  without  legs,  or  they  can 


Idealized  Animal  Fnnn« 
ThU  picture  .how,  more  clearly  tlon  No.  ijj  the  .Ircnsth  and   fr«dora  «Uh  which  the  line,   are  drawn. 
Advance  from  the  (impler  lo  the  more  complex. 


have  two  legs,  four  legs,  and  any  kind  of  tail,  as  suggested  in  iltnstration 
'2},G.  The  wings  can  be  turned  into  leaves  or  scrolls,  as  can  any  part  of 
the  body.  The  griffin  is  simply  an  animal  form  introduced  as  an  clement 
of  variety,  one  which  allows  the  intro<luction  of  beautiful  curves,  and  which, 
when  done  properly,  will  improve  some  patterns  very  much.       It  is  a  good 


172  Manual-Training  Drawing 

plan  in  learning  to  draw  these  forms  to  originate  them,  because  each  one 
should  be  able  to  make  a  dolphin  or  a  griffin  with  a  certain  amount  of  style. 

It  is  important  to  begin  with  the  very  simple  form,  almost  like  a  scroll 
and  then  give  it  still  more  detail  as  one  advances  in  knowledge  of 
its  characteristic  features.  These  shapes  can  be  made  to  fill  any  space,  and 
of  any  proportion.  The  necks  can  be  twisted  in  and  out,  the  wings  can 
be  rudimentary  or  extended  as  much  as  the  student  may  desire.  It  will 
repay  any  one  to  notice  the  beautiful  forms  of  griffins,  grotesques  and 
dolphins.  These  forms  will  always  be  good  if  the  essential  character  of 
the  lion  or  the  tiger  is  grasped.  An  expression  of  fierceness  is  necessary  to 
a  good  griffin.  It  should  never  look  weak,  like  a  kitten.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  practice  making  it  fierce  and  to  sketch  open  the  jaws  as  widely  as 
possible. 

To  grasp  this  form  practically  and  to  become  able  to  draw  it  with 
thoroughness,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  model  and  carve  a  good  type  sev- 
eral times.  There  is  no  better  practice  in  drawing  on  the  blackboard  than 
to  make,  when  a  little  facility  has  been  acquired  in  making  the  simpler  forms, 
the  more  complicated  ones  in  the  difYerent  positions, — with  short  wings, 
long  wings,  wings  closed  together,  wings  extended;  to  make  them  jumping, 
to  make  them  erect,  to  make  them  crouching;  to  throw  the  head  up,  to 
bend  it  down,  to  make  the  mouth  stretch  ojjen  in  various  degrees.  Some 
beautiful  examples  of  griffins  rampant  can  be  found  in  heraldic  devices  of 
various  kinds.  Motleled  and  carved  work  in  man}'  materials  will  embody 
dolphins  and  griffins. 

The  'Strd  Form  is  conventionalized  in  a  great  many  ways.  It  can  have 
the  body  of  a  lion  or  a  griffin,  and  the  wings  and  body  can  turn  into  the 
acanthus  leaf  or  any  of  the  variety  of  units  desired.  It  is  nnich  used  on 
account  of  the  beauty  of  the  feather  forms,  the  curves  of  the  neck  and  the 
talons.  It  is  used  in  ecclesiastical  art.  Xext  to  the  griffin  and  the  lion, 
it  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  heraldic  devices.  It  is  the  national  emblem 
or  device  of  various  countries. 

To  produce  these  decorative  figures  well  real  bird  form  must  be  studied. 
There  is  a  fierce  e.xpression  about  the  eye  and  the  bill  of  an  eagle,  and  an 
energy  about  the  legs  and  claws,  that  is  very  beautiful.  If  these  essen- 
tial features  be  grasped  and  the  form  embodied,  the  resultant  form  must  of 
necessity  be  beautiful.        Some  coins  have  the  eagle  in  various  positions 


Conventional  and  Symbolic  Forms 


J73 


stamped  on  them  and  they  can  be  studied  to  advantage.  Avoid  feel)leness 
and  weakness  in  design  of  this  cliaracter — its  beauty  depends  in  part  upon 
its  strength  and  virility. 

Illustration  2^7 


Decorative  Birds 

These  tlc^ifj^ns  are  copied  :ind  incmori/ed,  then  other  arranfp:inents  of  itimiliir 
fonris  arc  madep  or  entirely  original  deiiij^ns  are  created. 


It  will  be  of  advantage  to  study  a  wing  and  the  different  parts  of  a  wing. 
Some  of  the  arrangements  of  pin  feathers  and  minor  feathers  on  wings  are 
beautiful,  and  the  wonderful  way  in  which  they  change  their  position  when 
the  wing  is  fully  extended,  partly  closed  and  fully  closed,  repays  any  amount 
of  close  observation  and  study.  It  is  a  most  perfect  example  of  fitness  and 
adaptability. 

In  drawing  feathers,  or  in  modeling  or  carving  them,  the  main  features 
only  must  be  grasped.  When  we  try  to  put  in  the  detail  of  each  feather  the 
spirit  is  usually  lost.  The  large  groui)s  must  be  put  down,  the  striking 
features  and  marks,  but  the  detail  must  be  left  out.  Wings  can  be  ideal- 
ized and  conventionalized  just  as  the  other  forms  arc,  and  very  great  variety 
of  changes  can  be  gi\iMi  to  them. 

Drawmg  From  Ob/'ects.—nnMrL'u  shoul.l  continually  draw  from 
various   objects  that  interest    them.     If  they  have   had    proper  training  in 


J  74  Manual-Training:  Drawingf 

elementary  work,  it  will  he  very  easy  for  them  to  sketch  comparatively 
difficult  forms  with  much  truth.  The  birds,  flowers,  fish,  shells,  etc.,  are 
interesting,  but  it  is  also  important  that  other  forms  not  cjuite  so  entertaining 
should  be  drawn. 

Great  care,  however,  must  be  taken  not  to  render  the  children  tired  and 
stupid  by  giving  them  too  many  uninteresting  shapes.  The  cubes,  prisms, 
cylinders,  and  other  lilocks  and  abstract  forms  that  have  been  given  too 
much  to  children  in  the  past,  actually  seem  to  make  them  blockheads  for  the 
time.  We  must  make  the  young  love  the  work  if  we  wish  true  art,  and  the 
greatest  art  of  the  teacher  is  to  bring  in  the  uninteresting  forms  without 
making  the  children  tire  of  them.  Blocks  and  type  forms  continually 
atlministered  to  the  children  by  stupid  teachers,  who  consider  that  through 
them  they  will  get  a  love  of  nature,  are  responsible  for  much  of  the  lack  of 
interest  and  disgust  of  children  for  art  work.  The  true  art  forms  are  natural 
forms,  and  God  has  planted  a  certain  beauty  and  fascination  in  some  of  the 
simplest  forms  on  purpose  to  inspire  love.  The  truest  inspiration  comes  from 
the  common  natural  forms,  and  to  get  the  children  to  love  nature,  then,  is 
one  of  the  chief  works  of  the  elementary  teacher. 

Children  will  take  pleasure  in  drawing  boxes,  books,  furniture,  boats, 
tools,  etc.,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  make  them  dishke  the  work. 

It  is  good  practice  for  pupils  to  draw  different  kinds  of  printed  letters 
from  type  and  from  memory.  Very  few  people  know  the  actual  shape  of 
common  printed  letters  in  books  and  newspapers.  It  is  very  good  discipline 
in  free-hand  work  to  space  out  and  draw  block  letters  on  paper  and  on  the 
blackboard,  being  careful  to  make  the  actual  form  of  the  type  without  meas- 
uring and  without  ruling  lines.  Ornamental  letters  can  also  be  copied,  and 
then  original  designs  attempted,  as  illustrated  in  Xos.  238-241. 

In  these  suggestions  for  manual-training  drawing,  it  is  not  possible  to 
give  details  about  light  and  shade,  color-work,  perspective,  etc.  Unless  the 
teacher  really  understands  these  principles,  formal  lessons  should  not  be 
attempted.  Xo  one  should  attempt  to  teach  these  subjects  unless  cjualified 
to  do  the  work. 

Children  should  never  receive  formal  lessons  or  lectures  in  perspective, 
except  by  continually  drawing  forms  of  different  character,  and  then  having 
their  attention  drawn  to  self-evident  facts.  Thus  the  abstract  part  of  the 
work    gradually    dawns   upon    them  in  a  natural    way.      Nothing   is   more 


Conventional  and  Symbolic  Forms 


J  75 


Illustration  3^8 


txi.rLi^i-=  1:1  l-'-llL 


LVsif" 


Snmenf  these  Ictleni  are  copied  and  memorized.  Various  styles  of  type  should  he  made,  without  the  u-e  of  luling 
and  iiuisurini;.  It  is  quite  difficult  to  draw  simply  formed  letters  straight  across  the  board  equal  in  si/.r  and 
spaced  correctly. 


Illustrations  339-341 


Colored  lK>lKn>  fur  Initial  Letter 

Made  by  pupils  of  manual  IrainInK  cla..e..  Youne  Women'.  Chri.llan  A.."clal|on.  New  York       ll  U  l.nim. 
tibl.  to  repmduce  In  black  an  1  white  the  beauty  and  charm  of  the.r  illuminated  dci^n.  In  several  color.. 


176 


Manual-Training;  Drawing 


injurious  than  the  lectures  on  perspective  given  to  some  pupils  al)out  '"angles 
of  vision,"  "vanishing  lines/'  "picture  plans,"  etc.,  before  they  are  ready  for 
them.     They  tend  to  obscure  the  sul)ject  so  much  that  I  have  known  many 


Illustration  2-12 


nus  parts  01  the  ch:iir  move  into  their  right 
places  on  the  flat  surface  is  the  problem. 
Merely  drawing"  it  once  with  hibored  detail  will 
not  enable  the  child  to  know  the  complex  form. 
It  must  memorize  the  form,  by  feeling  through 
the  eye,  the  touch,  and  the  muscular  senses,  the 
various  positions  in  relation  to  the  eye.  Draw- 
ing- from  objects  ol  this  character  has  its 
proper  place,  for  it  obliges  the  pupil  to  express 
through  the  hand  the  perception  and  memorv 
of  artificial  forms  as  well  as  natural  forms. 


These  children  are  memorizing  chair  forms. 
The  chair  is  placed  near  by  and  drawn  in 
various  positions  many  times,  the  lines  being 
entirely  freehand  and  not  erased  until  fin- 
ished. The  character  oi  the  lines  is  better 
shown  in  the  larger 
engr:iving  on  page 
177.  The  perspec- 
tive is  not  correct 
every  time,  but 
each  time  the  form 
is  drawn  a  more 
vivid  memorv  of 
the  correct  form  is 
produced  and  by 
degrees  the  vari- 
ous parts  are 
draim  into  their 
relative  positions 
without  trouble. 
To  make  the  vari- 


But  this  practice  is  not 
allowed  at  the  expense  of 
facility  and  sweeping  free 
curves  and  touches.  To 
make  the  hand  spin  true 
spirals  and  accurate 
curves  of  all  dimensions, 
at  will,  implies  a  dexter- 
ity that  is  not  only  indis- 
pensable, but  that  is  use- 
ful in  every  vocation. 


Drawing  from  Objects  ia  Various  Positions 


Students  to  be  only  confused  by  the  seeming  complexity  of  a  comparatively 
easy  subject. 

To  understand  correct  perspective  is  abstract  \vork.  It  requires  a 
certain  amount  of  reasoning,  that  niust  only  be  done  after  a  sufficient 
numl)er  of  visual  and  tactual  impressions  have  been  made;  then  it  l)ecomes 


Conventional  and  Symbolic  Forms 


177 


clear  ami  plain  to  the  dullest  pupil.  Perspective  is  very  often  taujjht  as 
syntax  used  to  he  tau<fht  in  language  work — the  hardest  part  tirst.  the  rules 
before  the  words. 

Form  is  tirst  considered,  and  tlicn  comes  light  and  shade  in  color.  I 
lay  great  stress  upon  the  pupils  learning  form  hy  modeling,  and  learning 
light  and  shatle  also  by  modeling,  in  P)Ook  Three.  If  possilile.  inqiils  should 
be  allowed  to  use  light  and  shade  and  color  in  drawing  from  the  birds,  fishes. 
shells,  leaves,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  designing. 

The  simplest  forms  about  the  house  are  good  subjects  for  drawing.  To 
be  able  to  draw  chairs  free-hantl.  as  in  some  of  the  pictures  herewith,  is  good 

Illustration  243 


Freehand  Drawing  of  Chair*  in  Variou«  Potitioni 
Thi»   l.irKir  illustration   shows   the  strength  and   |M)»iti<ms  of  the  iini»  more  clearly  than  Ihc  i.nialUr  pitlun.» 
in  N'n.  i^j. 


practice.  Of  course,  in  drawing  them  on  the  blackboard  only  an  outline  can 
be  renilercil,  but  to  make  that  outline  free-han<l.  without  erasing,  and  to 
place  the  chairs  in  ditiferent  positions,  is  no  easy  task.    If,  however,  the  pupils 


f7S  Manual-Training  Drawing 

are  encouraged  to  repeat  t^ieir  poor  drawings  until  they  actually  get  good 
chairs,  and  then  become  able  to  draw  them  from  memory,  these  compara- 
tively complex  forms,  and  others,  can  be  drawn  with  considerable  ease. 
The  perspective  is  not  alDSolutely  correct  in  these  drawings,  but  to  make 
them  freely,  especially  when  foreshortened,  and  when  the  chair  is  cjuite  near, 
shows  skill  and  power,  particularly  when  the  lines  are  drawn  from  the  first 
intention  and  are  not  changed. 

Animal  forms  should  also  be  drawn  freely,  as,  in  Plate  Eleven,  the 
pupil  trying  to  get  the  movements  without  detail,  trying  to  get  the  essential 
features  with  the  fewest  possible  lines. 

Sytnboltsm. — Some  of  the  most  wonderful  art  forms  in  the  world  are 
symbolic.  It  is  important  that  we  should  understantl  symbolism.  Too 
many  people  see  forms  in  art,  decorations  of  all  kinds,  without  understand- 
ing their  import.  I  do  not  think  one  person  in  a  thousand  begins  to  ap- 
preciate why  some  of  the  greatest  and  simplest  forms  are  so  interesting  and 
beautiful.  ^lost  people  look  at  ornament,  and  at  con\-entionalized  and 
symbolic  work,  as  the  savage  looks  at  jirint, — regarding  them  as  simply 
marks,  forms,  colors,  that  convey  no  idea.  The  mind  does  not  grasp  any 
of  the  thought  conveyed.  It  is  important  that  common  people  should  be 
able  to  comprehend  the  abstract  idea  of  these  things  through  observation 
of  concrete  forms  of  various  kinds. 

Symbolism  is  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  and  signifies  a  visible  form;  im- 
plying something  that  is  in  itself  incapable  of  representation.  It  em- 
bodies a  thought  that  is  the  sign  or  symbol  of  something  higher  than  merely 
meets  the  eye.  It  has  l)een  used  in  all  times,  and  some  of  the  most  wonder- 
ful as  well  as  some  of  the  most  beautiful  art  work  and  ornament  of  all 
periods  have  been  symbolic.  Before  print  was  in  use,  or  had  come  into 
common  use,  symbols  were  frequently  etuployed  as  a  means  of  impressing 
on  the  multitudes  truths  that  were  incapable  of  being  represented  by  words. 
A  sign  lifted  u])  meant  the  same  thing  to  everybody;  a  statement  in  words 
could  hardly  be  as  generally  understood.  S_\mbolism  has  been  used,  per- 
haps, most  widely  in  religion. 

Ecclesiastical  work  of  all  periods  embodies  some  very  beautiful  con- 
ceptions. These  are  symbolized  in  the  simplest  possible  forms,  and  grad- 
ually come  to  mean  the  same  thing  to  different  people.  The  circle,  mean- 
ing eternity,  without  beginning  and  without  end;  three  circles  interlaced. 


Plate  Twelve 


Bird  Form  ft 
Thc«c  rrn!  hinU.  with  m.inv  olhrr*.  nT  n^rd  ai  mtKlcU  for  the  chlUlnrn  to  work  fmm,    Thcv  orr  drawn  In 
pencil,  pajnttd  in  wiiicr  colnr  and  nKHlclfil  tncl;iy. 

{'79) 


180  Manual-Training  Drawing; 

meaning  the  trinity  in  unity,  or  the  three  persons  of  the  Godhead.       The 
trefoil  has  the  same  meaning. 

The  cross  has  been  emplo\ed  in  myriad  forms  all  over  the  world,  from 
two  sticks  crossed  to  the  greatest  concepts  in  art  that  it  is  possible  for  the 
mind  to  bring  forth.  It  has  gradually  become  the  keynote  of  Christianity, 
which  it  pre-eminently  symbolizes.  At  one  time  the  symbol  of  suffering  and 
degradation,  and  forever  after  the  symbol  of  achievement  and  vic- 
tory, it  to-day  forms  the  ground  plan  of  the  noblest  buildings,  and 
in  gold  is  a  fitting  emblem  to  crown  their  pinnacles.  Bejeweled  and 
begemmed,  and  stamped  on  the  books  of  prayer  carried  around  in 
hands  gloved  in  costly  fabrics,  the  cross  has  too  often  lost  its 
meaning. 

The  nimbus  or  halo  is  a  symbol.  Among  the  early  Christians  many 
forms  of  this  were  used  to  symbolize  their  rites.  The  Egyptians  used  it 
almost  entirely.  Their  hieroglyphics  are  symbols,  written  pictures,  some 
of  them  embodying  very  fascinating  meanings  that  should  be  understood. 
Many  living  forms  have  been  used  as  symbols, — the  serpent,  the  dove,  the 
eagle  and  a  great  many  others.  It  is  wonderful  to  what  an  extent 
ecclesiastical  art  has  gone  in  the  representation  of  these  forms.  Take,  for 
instance,  the  passion  flower,  which  symbolizes  the  passion  of  Christ. 
To  every  part  of  this  strange  and  beautiful  flower  has  l^een  attached 
some  symljolic  meaning.  It  can  be  seen  used  in  e\'er_\'  concei\'able  form  in 
wood,  clay  and  stone,  in  churches;  even  windov.s,  and  fabrics  of  various 
kinds  are  embellished  with  it. 

Plaster  Models, — The  series  of  ^■egetable  fruit  forms  and  forms  illus- 
trated herewith  (Xo.  244)  suggest  an  excellent  primary  course  for  young 
children.  Thev  can  be  graded  according  to  the  desire  or  inclination 
of  the  teacher  from  the  simple  forms  to  the  more  complex.  Each  one  of 
these  vegetable  or  fruit  forms  has  been  cast  from  nature,  endeavor  having 
been  made  in  procuring  the  original  forms  to  get  those  most  typical  in 
shape. 

Childfen  should  not  draw  from  casts  of  fruit  and  vegetables  unless  it  is 
impracticable  to  provide  the  real  forms.  As  often  as  possible,  real  apples, 
pears,  potatoes,  and  other  fruits  and  vegetables  should  be  furnished  for  the 
children  to  study.  The  forms  are  also  to  be  modeled  in  clay.  Only  by 
doing  this  repeatedly  can  organic  memories  of  the  forms  be  made  tliat  will 


Conventional  and  Symbolic  Forms 


m 


lllustratit.n  244 


Mud*.ls  of  1- ruit   l-'-ruib 


be  permanent  and  vahiahle.  These  forms,  heads  and  other  motlels  are  also 
more  attractive  to  the  children  than  i,a'omctric  forms  an<l  blocks,  and  inspire 
them  with  more  desire  to  work  and  more  admiration  for  nature.  It  is  desir- 
able to  have  as  manv  good  casts  of  art  and  nature  forms  as  possible.     All 


Illustration  24: 


These   plaster  models  arc  nearly  life  site,  and 
curving. 


.\niMial  Fiinii- 

wilh  anumKr   ..I  ..lliir-    ire  usid   for  drawinc,   modrlint:  and 


oi  the  models  pictured   in   the   various   parts   of   this   book  are  used  in  my 
schools.     Manv  of  the  casts  are  original. 

The  casts  of  animals'  heads  have  been  made  especially  for  school  pur- 


182  Manual-Training  Drawing 

poses.  One  series  is  quite  small  in  size,  the  other  series  is  of  life  size.  Some 
are  quite  difficult  and  some  are  easy.  It  is  best,  however,  to  allow  the  chil- 
dren to  make  their  own  selection.  These  forms  are  carefully  modeled,  and 
in  some  cases  have  been  made  by  skillful  artists  of  acknowledged  reputation. 
As  well  as  being  useful  for  class  purposes,  they  are  especially  appropriate  for 
decoration  of  the  class  room.  They  should  never  be  shut  up  in  closets,  but 
exposed  to  ^iew  all  the  time.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  change  their  positions 
occasionally,  to  hang  them  in  different  places  in  the  room,  or  to  turn  them 
around  to  show  different  views. 

In  some  of  the  classes,  casting  in  plaster  of  various  forms  is  done.  It  is 
good  practice,  and  requires  skill  to  make  a  fine  cast  from  nature.  The  work 
is  very  simple  and  can  be  done  1)}'  grammar  grade  children  who  have  had 
any  manual  training  work.  All  teachers  should  Ije  able  to  make  plaster 
casts  of  leaves,  fruits,  fish,  birds,  animals,  etc.  Except  the  original,  nothing 
is  more  instructive  than  a  fine  cast  of  some  natural  form.  The  finest  detail 
can  be  reproduced  with  the  utmost  fidelity.  The  time  occupied  in  making 
the  casts  is  almost  the  only  expense,  the  material  costing  verx-  little.  It  is 
well  to  occasionally  encourage  the  pupils  by  selecting  some  of  their  most 
perfect  modeling  to  be  multiplied  by  casting  in  plaster.  Casts  of  so  many 
things  can  be  made  good  use  of  in  every  day  life,  the  operation  is  so  simple, 
so  quickl}-  learned  and  so  educational  in  \alue,  that  it  should  not  be  over- 
looked as  a  minor  feature  in  the  course  in  modeling. 

The  Barye  casts  of  animal  forms  (see  page  213),  of  which  examples 
will  be  found  in  many  of  our  pictures,  are  especially  useful  in  the 
class  room.  They  are  examples  of  the  work  of  the  greatest  modeler  of 
animals  of  the  modern  period  of  French  art.  and  are  especially  appropriate 
to  the  school  room  for  their  fidelity  to  nature  and  for  a  certain  amount  of 
breadth  of  style  in  modeling  which  makes  it  easy  for  the  children  to  repro- 
duce them.  In  some  cases,  the  partly  finished  forms  afford  good  illustra- 
tions of  how  they  should  be  blocked  out.  The  young  never  tire  of  these 
noble  and  interesting  shapes. 

Architectural  Models. — These  plaster  models,  represented  in  the  illus- 
trations on  page  i(S4,  will  be  found  very  useful  for  a  variety  of  purposes  in  the 
schools.  I  wish  it  were  possible  for  a  series  of  them  to  be  placed  in  every 
school  in  the  country.  They  represent  five  great  styles  of  architecture, — the 
Doric,  the  Ionic,  the  Corinthian,  the  Roman  and  the  Composite.     They  are 


Conventional  and  Symbolic  Forms 


J  S3 


in  perfect  proportion  witli  the  great  orig-inals.  and  .--boiilil  he  stmlied  carefnllv 
till  the  pupils  know  tiioronglily  the  essential  features  of  each  style,  their  dif- 
ferences and  their  resemblances. 


Illustration  ;  / 


Architcxtuml  Forms 
Drawinir  from  memory  viirinus  cjpitals.    These  should  W  dr.iwn  cnlirvly  fix-fhiinJ. 


It  is  good  practice  to  sketch  tliese  forms  freeiiand  on  paper  and  to  de- 
lineate them  large  on  the  blackboards;  to  make  accurate  measurements,  and 
to  memorize  frequently  as  many  tilings  as  possible  from  them,  'ibis  knowl- 
edge is  of  great  .service  to  all  pupils  in  their  after  life,  whether  they  become 
architects,  technical  workers,  artists  or  tradesmen.  It  will  be  found  that 
one  can  enjoy  the  appearance  of  buildings  ever  so  nuich  more.  an<I  that 
one's  taste  is  inlluenced  by  projierly  embodying  these  forms.  1  he  vase 
forms  are  classic  examples  of  the  best  periods,  ami  should  also  be  studieil 
carefully  fmm  the  models.      It  is  quite  surprising,  even  to  experienced  cilu- 


J  84 

Illustration  247 


Manual-Training:  Drawing 


cators,  to  witness  the  admirable  effect  on  pupils  in  the  grammar  grades  of  a 
little  experience  in  drawing  and  modeling  typical  forms  of  the  great  styles 
in  architectinx.  If  these  units  of  style  are  modeled  as  well  as  drawn,  the 
pupil  acquires  a  far  more  intimate  accpiaintance  with  their  proportions  and 
l^eculiarities. 

Illustration  248 


Plaster  Casts  of  Aichitectural  btyleg 


w 


\ 


BOOK  THREE 

Modeling 


Cluy  models  oi  rual  ti&h  m;idt:  by 
gramoiar  grAdc  pupils 


"  Perception  and  mnnory  should  be  indissolubly  associ;ited.  Two  errors— to  cx|>ccl  a  child  to  remembiT  wh.it  it 
has  never  pcrccivcil,  and  to  allow  it  to  perceive  without  any  systematic  representation  of  the  object  in  memory,** 
[Jacobi. 

"Good  thou^ht^  are  no  better  than  good  dreams  unletts  they  be  executed."— [Emerson. 

"Without  action,  thought  can  never  ripen  into  truth."— [Emerson. 


Wood  Carving  by  School  noy 


f- 
< 


o 
u- 


■T3 

O 


.=  13 
C  O 
rt  O 
1,  io 


-=•1^ 
^f. 


C -3 

—  jj 

1^ 


Illustration  249 


^    .    1 


/ 


L^ 


Pliisler  Mode) 
For  (Iruwiii^,  modeling  and  carving. 


CHAPTER  I 

Introduction, 
Plant.  Etc.* 


THERE  IS  ONLY  ONE  WAV  TO  KXOW  FORM— that  is  by 
making  it.  not  simply  drawing  it.  If  we  arc  to  know  things  as  thev 
actually  are,  and  at  the  same  time  to  cultivate  an  energetic  disposi- 
tion to  perform  deeds,  then  modeling,  clay  modeling,  must  become  a  part 
of  educational  work.  The  greatest  artists  have  been  the  men  who  have  been 
able  to  model,  like  Michael  .\ngelo.  Donatello,  Cellini,  Leonardo  da  \'inci, 
Leighton.  Gerome  and  others.  .\11  sculptors  have  to  know  form,  because 
they  have  to  make  it.  There  are  many  artists  who  know  form  but  slightly, 
and  that  is  the  reason  some  of  them  fail  in  their  work. 

In  many  art  schools  modeling  is  now  advocated  as  a  means  of  teaching 
form,  even  for  i)ainters,  engravers  and  illustrators,  for  one  may  draw  the 
shape  of  an  object  many  times,  and  still  not  be  familiar  with  its  appearance 
all  around.  This  is  not  the  case  in  modeling,  for  in  this  you  have  to  make 
it  all  around  and  touch  it  all  over.       .\  vivid  impression  is  gained  through 


*  Alt  the  modeled  work  In  the  illuHtntlonft,  iind  (he  tiles  inserted  In  the  text,  h.ivc  been  mndeled   by  the  chlldr«a 
of  the  various  {grades. 


188  Modeling: 

tlie  sense  of  touch  and  the  muscular  sense.  I  have  continually  spoken  of 
drawing  as  a  mode  of  thought-expression.  In  like  manner  modeling  in 
clav  is  a  mode  of  expression,  only  a  more  thorough  mode  than  any  other. 

^Jodeling  compels  the  use  of  hoth  hands  continually.  The  more  we 
use  our  hands  the  more  control  we  have  over  those  organs,  and  the  more 
vital  we  make  the  connection  between  the  hands  and  the  brain.  In  model- 
ing we  use  several  channels  of  impression,  the  sight,  the  touch,  and  the 
muscular  sense.  All  sculptors  get  a  wonderful  sense  of  form  through  feel- 
ing or  touch;  the  most  beautiful  curves  and  the  most  delicate  portions  of 
some  statues  being  made  by  tlie  fingers  alone.  All  bronze  and  marble 
statues  are  first  modeled  in  clay,  and  then  cut  in  marble  or  cast  in  bronze. 
The  actual  thought  of  the  artist,  the  real  manipulative  work,  is  always  im- 
pressed on  this  plastic  medium,  that  responds  to  the  slightest  touch.  It  is 
this  w-onderful  "  feeling"  that  enables  the  sculptor  mentally  to  grasp  almost 
imperceptible  variations  and  gradations  of  form  that  are  invisible  to  the 
ordinar}'  \-ision.  This  seeing-power,  as  it  may  be  called,  is  partly  the  re- 
sult of  the  tactual  impressions  on  the  mind.  Touch  has  been  considered  by 
some  to  be  the  master  sense,  one  of  the  first  developed,  and  few  realize  its 
importance  as  a  means  of  training  the  mind  and  the  judgment.  A  great 
part  of  the  knowledge  attributed  to  the  sense  of  sight  is  received  through 
the  touch  alone. 

In  these  chapters  on  modeling  I  have  purposely  refrained  from  grading 
the  work  too  closely.  The  elementary  forms  suggested  for  little  children 
are  just  as  good  for  adult  teachers  or  others,  if  they  have  never  handled  clay. 
The  exercises  on  manipulation  of  course  cannot  be  attempted  by  very  young 
pupils.  The  following  lessons  may  be  taken  in  any  order  desired,  and  are 
chiefly  intended  to  indicate  the  variety  of  things  that  can  be  made  and  one 
way  of  making  them.  The  lessons  are  the  result  of  experience  with  large 
numbers,  and  the  forms  given  are  some  of  the  best  for  class  purposes. 

The  Plant  Required  fr>r  modeling  is  inexpensive.  Aboard  IJX14  and 
about  one  inch  thick,  a  palette  knife  to  cut  and  smooth  the  clay,  one  or 
two  modeling  tools  for  each  pupil,  and  one  or  two  cups  for  water  for  a  class 
are  all  that  is  required.  Clay  can  be  purchased  at  any  pottery  or  brick- 
yard. If  it  is  not  convenient  to  get  it  at  these  places,  it  can  be  purchased 
through  any  art-material  store.  It  should  not  cost  more  than  a  cent  and  a 
half  a  jiound.  although  some  dealers  charge  from  three  to  five  cents  a  pound. 


5)     1    I 


-■<       £.11 


^  7"  ^  "■  — 

Q  ^  i  -  ^ 

— ■  '/  —  C  J; 

=  ;  »  -^  i 

5.  ;•  a.  ?•  7 

<  r  5  i  ; 


00 
O 

3 


71 

3 

o 

a 


=  ?    Q 


c  •■  "^ "  *'  — 

=•  =  I  ^  i  »» 

S  :  i  =  r  S 

r  r  =  -=  ~  ? 

c  =.  =  =.  5  2 

<  s  J  s  ,  2 

r  I  '  '  ^  n 

3    2   <  =  -r  y 

■'  "  s  7  ;  SI 

r>  5  i  2  -t 

5  u  ?  :^  s 

*  1  r  ^ 


3  ^  = 


o 

c 

50 


190  Modeling 

It  can  be  purchased  in  quantity  at  any  pottery  for  about  $20  a  ton.  This 
clay,  used  in  making  pottery,  is  very  fine,  clean,  sifted  and  screened,  and  is 
the  kind  used  by  sculptors.  Clay  in  some  localities  is  gray,  in  others  red  or 
yellow  or  blue.  The  gray  clay  is  the  best,  but  good  work  can  be  done  with 
the  red.  blue  or  yellow.  If  possible,  however,  procure  the  ordinary  gray 
clay. 

Good  clay  is  one  of  the  cleanest  mediums  of  which  we  have  any  knowl- 
edge. It  is  antiseptic.  If  disease  germs  are  placed  in  the  clay  and  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  sunlight  to  dry,  the  germs  become  devitalized.*  It 
brushes  from  the  clothing  with  a  very  few  touches,  and  if  the  pupils  are  not 
allowed  to  scatter  it  on  the  floor,  when  the  modeling  boards  are  put  awav 
no  one  need  know  that  clay  has  been  used.  The  children  should  be  al- 
lowed to  wash  their  hands  after  using  it.  Like  flour  in  mixing  dough,  it 
has  a  tendency  to  make  the  hands  feel  a  little  dr}-  in  the  beginning.  This 
soon  passes  away. 

!Many  teachers  object  to  the  use  of  clay  in  schools  because  they  say  "  it 
makes  a  mess."  Only  in  the  hands  of  an  ignorant  teacher  can  it  do  so. 
No  one  should  attempt  to  teach  clay  work  who  is  unable  to  model.  The 
clay  must  be  in  good  condition  every  time  it  is  given  to  the  children.  Onlv 
an  expert,  one  accustomed  to  model,  can  tell  when  the  cla}-  is  in  good  con- 
dition. It  must  not  be  too  hard,  it  must  not  be  too  soft,  it  must  not  be 
rotten,  it  must  be  just  right.  This  can  be  "  felt"  only  by  one  who  himself 
models.  In  this  series  of  lessons  I  propose  to  illustrate,  by  means  of  a  few 
exercises,  the  manipulation  and  care  of  clay,  the  use  of  tools  and  appliances, 
and  then  the  making  of  a  series  of  easy,  simple  elementary  forms  suited  for 
the  very  youngest  children  in  primary  schools,  the  exercises  increasing  in 
difficulty  up  to  the  ordinary  work  of  the  grammar  grades. 

Teachers  must  not  g-ive  these  series  of  forms  to  the  children  one  after 


•The  following  is  .an  extr.ict  from  the  report  of  the  comiiilttee  of  hygiene  of  the  Philadelphia  board  of  public 
education  as  to  the  value  of  clay  modeling,  made  in  1S95  : 

"  Your  committee  would  urge  as  a  matter  pertaining  to  the  health  of  the  children  attending  our  public  schools^ 
the  most  extended  introduction  possible  of  the  present  system  of  clay  modeling,  believing  that  such  manual  training  , 
is  in  every  respect  valuable  and  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  best  results  to  mind  and  body.  As  the  Director  of  the 
Public  School  of  Industrial  Art  has  said,  '  No  medium  better  than  clay  will  ever  be  devised  to  fulfill  the  plastic  require- 
ments of  educational  thought-expression,  as  is  witnessed  by  its  universal  use  in  the  arts  and  industries  of  all  nations 
since  the  beginning  of  history.* 

"  (Signed)  Alex.ander  H.  McAdam,  M.  D.,  Chairman. 

"(Signed)  Thomas  G.  .Morton,  M.  D. 

"(Signed)  William  K.  Mattern,  M.  D." 


Introduction,  Plant,  Etc 


J9I 


the  oilier  in  quick  succession.  Many  of  the  sliapes  need  to  he  made  a  num- 
ber of  times,  anil  others  of  like  nature  should  he  tjivcn.  The  series  are 
taken  from  a  variety  of  forms  used  in  my  classes,  and  with  some  classes  of 
normal  pupils  the  entire  nuniiier  can  he  made  in  a  few  weeks.  Teachers 
must  not  cease  to  remember  that  the  children  have  several  vears  to  hecome 


Illustration   250 


Cicuniflric  l-'iirms  .ind  UirJ  l-'orms 


Jk-i,'innin;;>  ;il  M' ■'.!«. 


Thi!i  picture  nX  the  riyht  represents  the  first  attempts  of  a  beginner  ten  ycirs  of  :ij^  .anil  innde  lit  one  sttltnff. 
First  the  lar;;e  roRcltc.  then  the  st^iri'ish,  then  Ih^  rosette  with  hiops  and  then  the  small  cant.lloupe.  The  hands  can 
be  Hern  making;  the  liMip.  The  clay  has  been  rolled  nut  to  .tbout  the  thicknesA  of  a  lead  p4>nci1  and  then  is  bent  into 
position  as  desired.  These  pictures  illustrate  the  simplicity  of  the  work  and  the  little  plant  that  is  required. 
Almost  any  object  in  the  garden  or  the  yard  can  be  modeled. 

proficient  in  this  work,  and  that  it  is  unreasonahle  to  e.x]iecl  lint.-  rcsuhs  ;it 
the  tirst  attempt.  This  is  a  constant  failing  with  some  teachers;  they  ex- 
pect too  much  from  little  fingers. 

A  Good  Box  for  the  Clay.  —In  constructing  clay  boxes,  see  lliat 
they  arc  made  without  any  metal  or  slate  lining.  There  is  no  sub- 
stance better  than  wood  or  clay.  In  some  schools  I  have  seen  7inc-lined 
bo.xes  and  slate,  used  through  ignorance  of  this  fact.  Clay  will  not  stick 
to  a  wooden  surface,  it  sticks  to  metal  or  |)orce1ain-linetI  boxes  like  wax. 


J92 


Modeling 


Any  carpenter  can  make  suitable  boxes.       Of  course  the  form  can  be  mod- 
ified to  suit  any  sized  space  in  tlie  class  room. 

I  have  found  it  useful  to  use  a  case  that  runs  up  like  a  book-case,  witli 
shelves  that  are  removable.  It  should  be  possible  to  put  the  shelves  close 
together  or  far  apart,  as  desired,  according  to  the  size  of  the  work.  If  the 
work  is  on  flat  tiles,  they  can  be  put  within  two  inches  of  each  other;  if  it 
forms  a  large  mass,  several  shelves  can  be  taken  out  and  the  work  put  in 
without  trouble.  Doors  can  be  put  to  the  case  to  keep  the  work  secure. 
Its  lower  part  may  open  with  lids.  This  is  for  the  mass  of  clay,  which 
should  be  easy  of  access  on  account  of  its  weight.  A  spade  can  be  used 
to  keep  it  in  good  condition.  The  box  may  l)e  made  large  or  small,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  class  or  the  number  of  pupils.  A  box  5x6  feet  and  3 
feet  deep  for  the  clay  part  will  serve  for  a  class  of  200.  The  clay  can  be 
kept  moist  by  means  of  pieces  of  flannel  or  1:)lanket  spread  over  it. 

Illustration  251 


Portion  of  till-  Mocluliiig  Room,  Public  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia 

The  room  accommodates  fifty  pupils,  five  at  each  table.     Eight  hundred  grammar  grade  pupils  and  various 
teachers'  classes  rotate  into  this  roon-  each  term. 


Illustration  2S2 


Mukia{$   a  Ball  ot  Clay 


CHAPTER  II 

Elementary 
Courses  in  Modeling 


yl  MANIPULATION  OF  CLAY.— Take  a  piece  of  clay  in  the  band. 
/  m'M  I  want  you  to  learn  something  a1)oiit  its  manipulation.  Roll  it  out 
between  the  palms  of  the  hands  until  it  is  as  thick  as  the  finsfer  and 
about  four  inches  long.  Notice  when  you  iiolil  it  by  one  end  th.it  it  is  limp, 
and  will  not  stand  erect.  Now  observe  that  I  pinch  tlie  clay  together 
and  "wedge"  it,  making  it  a  little  firmer  in  consistency.  "W'etlging" 
is  a  potter's  term  for  soldifying  the  clay  in  this  way.  W'iien  I  hold 
it  up  you  jjerceive  that  it  will  support  (piite  a  \reiglu,  that  it  is  strong. 
In  every  piece  of  work  that  we  make  we  should  endeavor  to  keep 
the  clay  wedged.  Now  I  will  take  the  same  piece  of  <-lay  and  roll  it 
out  again  two  or  three  times  on  the  board  or  betwen  my  hands.  I  rub 
it  out  and  then  roll  it  out  again.  Vou  will  now  sec  that  the  clay  is  no 
longer  plastic,  but  rigid,  and  that  if  I  bend  it.  it  breaks.  This  clay  is  now 
"rotten."  mifit  for  use.  It  has  ceased  to  be  elastic  or  pliable.  Do  not  let 
children  use  it  when  it  is  of  a  consistency  like  this.  "  Rotten"  is  the  tech- 
nical name  given  to  clay  that  criunbles  like  bread,  instead  of  being  temi)ered 
and  pliable,  or  plastic.  It  can  be  improved  very  tpiickly  by  moistening  and 
kneading  over  again,  and  it  is  then  what  is  technically  called  "  tempered 
clav. 


l.T 


( m) 


J94 


Modeling 


The  Spiral. — Take  a  piece  of  clay  about  the  size  of  the  last  joint  of  the 
thumb.  Roll  it  out  between  the  palms  till  it  is  about  as  thin  as  a  slate  pen- 
cil, allowing  it  to  be  pointed  at  one  end.      Then  try  to  make  a  spiral  (Illus. 


Illustration  253 


^ 


i 


The  Spiral 

The  form  shown  in  this  picture  and  the  next  is  an  exercise  to  test  the  texture  and  temper  ol  clay.     If  the 
form  can  be  made  with  a  few  turns  of  the  fingers,  the  clay  is  just  in  the  right  state  for  manipulation. 


253).  You  cannot  do  this  at  first,  but  with  a  little  practice  you  will  be  able 
to  do- it  well.  I  have  had  pupils  try  to  make  this  form  for  weeks  before  they 
suceeded.  Others  ca.n  make  it  in  a  few  minutes.  The  more  3-ou  practice,  the 
more  skill  you  will  get.  Tt  is  good  exercise  in  enabling  you  to  determine  the 
texture  and  the  temper  of  the  clay.  When  with  a  single  touch  and  two  or 
tliree  turns  you  can  make  this  form  so  that  it  will  stand  erect,  and  remain 
without  falling,  it  shows  that  you  can  manipulate  the  clay  wdien  it  is  just  at 
the  right  temper  and  texture.       If  it  is  a  little  too  hard  it  breaks  in  a  most 


Elementary  Gjurscs 


195 


aggravating  fashion.  If  it  is  a  little  too  soft  it  does  not  stand  up.  There 
is  a  happy  medium,  and  tlie  sense  of  touch  must  become  educate<l  until  it 
can  feel  the  proper  quality  and  produce  it  without  any  trouble.  If  you  find 
that  the  clay  breaks,  put  it  to  one  side  and  try  another  piece.  Do  not  use 
the  same  piece  t^vice.  When  }ou  can  make  a  good  spiral,  you  understand 
the  texture  of  tlio  clay. 

Leaf  Forms. — Take  a  ])iece  of  clay  about  as  large  as  the  last  joint 
of  the  thumb,  and  roll  it  out  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  until  it  is  spear-shaped 
or  resembles  a  spear  head.  Xow  take  the  form  between  the  fingers  and 
thumbs,  as  illustrated  in  254.  and  beginning  at  the  tip.  witli  l)oth  hands  make 

Illustration  354 


J 

■■■J 

^^^H^^^l 

^■H 

^l 

^^B^       '  ^^^^^i^B 

^■^ 

l^^^^l 

[I 

BOHEv  ■ '  -                ^ 

P 

»■: 

1  ^ 

^^ 

1 

•1 

^-       -  — 

^ 
J 

I^caf  FonnB 
Exercise  for  inanipulatinn  nf  clay. 


a  leaf  form.  This  is  a  little  ditlicult  at  first.  i)Ut  with  jiractice  each  pupil 
can  make  a  midrib,  show  each  of  the  veins  and  the  serrations  on  the  edge 
of  the  leaf,  leaving  it  thick  in  the  center  and  thin  on  the  edge.      At  first  there 


196 


Modeling 


is  a  tendencx'  to  Ijreak  and  crumble  tlie  edge,  hut  when  it  lias  been  attempted 

a  few  times  the  fingers  will  respond  and  a  very  good  leaf  will  be  the  result. 

This  is  a  good  exercise  in  manipulation.       It  compels  the  use  of  both  hands, 

and  the  complex  form  is  the  product. 

Circular  Forms, — Take  a  piece  of  clay  about    as  large  as  the  thumb 

and  roll  it  out  between  the  palms  until  it  makes  a  good,  slender  roll  about 

four  or  'iwe  inches  long.  Now  bend  it 
and  make  both  ends  meet  till  it  forms 
a  ring.  Then  by  the  use  of  the  fingers 
alone  manipulate  the  clay  .so  that  the 
joint  will  not  show  and  so  that  the 
rins'  is  true  and  e\en  all  around.   This 


Illustration  2t;r; 


Moulding  ;l  Circular  Form 


is  another  good  exercise,  and  one 
that  requires  skillful  handling.  It 
is  still      more  difficult    to  make  an- 

Jk .  other  ring  interlacing  with  this  one. 

Hints  to  the  Teacher.— W'^i^t--^ 
the  children  are  making  these  forms  do 
not  allow  them  to  break  the  clay  in  pieces;  let  them  keep  it  in  a  lump  except 
the  portion  they  are  using.  Allow  no  crumbs  to  fall  about  the  board,  the 
desk  or  the  tloor.  All  the  pieces  must  be  put  back  in  the  main  lump.  If 
they  are  rotten,  they  can  be  placed  at  the  left  liy  themselves.  From  the 
very  beginning,  resist  the  tendency  of  the  beginner  to  "  make  a  dirt."  In 
a  few  lessons  it  will  be  found  that  pupils  can  model  elaborate  and  complex 
forms  without  dropping  or  scattering  the  clay  at  all.  It  is  simply  a  habit 
of  neatness  that  must  Ije  taught,  and  if  insisted  upon  from  the  beginning 
there  need  be  no  trouble  with  the  "  propensity  to  make  dirt"  that  is  wrongly 
attributed  to  clay-work. 

When  the  children  begin  to  make  good  forms  do  not  allow  their  work 
to  be  destroyed.  Place  all  pieces  made  on  a  shelf  to  dry.  Then  if  they 
are  not  kept  permanently,  they  can  be  sorted  out.  the  good  ones  given  to 
the  pupil  to  take  home  and  the  bad  ones  mixed  with  the  main  mass  in  the 
clay-l)ox.  The  same  mass  of  clay  can  be  used  for  years  in  this  way,  and 
continue  perfectly  healthful  and  free  from  any  odor.  Xever  allow  the  clay 
to  remain  for  long  jieriods  in  a  damp  state  unused.  If  it  is  not  to  be  used 
for  a  few  months.  ]iermit  it  to  dry.     It  can  readily  be  moistened  again  when 


Elementary  G}urses 


J  97 


required.  The  damp  from  the  clay  yields  a  musty  and  moldy  odor  whicli 
is  not  pleasant.  If  the  clay  is  constantly  used,  it  will  keep  fresh  and  sweet 
indefinitely.    Covering  with  a  moist,  clean  cloth  will  prevent  drying. 

Do  not  attempt  to  keep  the  clay  in  a  crock  or  a  tin  vessel.  .\  wooden 
box  is  far  better.  I  have  clay  boxes  in  some  of  my  schools  that  have  l)een 
in  use  for  fifteen  years,  and  except  that  the  bottoms  are  a  little  decayed,  they 
are  as  good  as  new. 

Tiles  and  other  unfinished  work  should  be  kept  on  wooilen  shelves 
in  the  clay-l)o.\  or  closet.  If  possible  in  the  class  room  devote<l  to 
modeling,  shelves  or  ledges  should  be  put  around  the  room,  on  which 
finished  work  can  be  placed.       In  this  way  in  a  very  short  time  the  rooms 

Illustration  2ti6 


i-'ir!.t  ExcrcUcs,  Muking  BalLt,  noscltvs,  etc. 


can  be  decorated  with  creditable  work    produced  by  the  pupils.       Tiiis  is 
inspiring  to  all  and  makes  the  place  look  like  an  art  workshop. 

Elementary  Forms. — The  following  arc  suggestive  of  the  simplest 
fonns  that  can  i^c  made  from  clay  without  the  use  of  tools,  for  the  most 
elementary  classes.      Make  some  i)alls.  by  rolling  the  clay  in  the  iiand.  plxnit 


J  98 


Modelings 


the  size  of  a  large  marble.  Groupr,  of  these  can  be  made.  Make  groups 
of  three,  groups  of  four,  groups  of  five.  ]\Iake  a  pyramid,  make  a  star,  and 
so  on.  Children  of  six  years  of  age  and  upwards  take  pleasure  in  making 
these  forms. 

Illustration  257 


First  Exercises  in  Modeling 


Other  forms  can  l)e  made  by  taking  a  piece  of  clay  and  rolling  it  out 
about  as  thick  as  a  lead  pencil  and  about  four  or  five  inches  long.  ]\Iakc  a 
little  loop.  This  can  be  combined  with  others,  making  the  following  forms. 
(Illus.  257.)  Little  rosettes  can  be  made  by  adding  a  center.  Do  not  let 
the  children  make  crumbs  or  pieces.  Instruct  them  continually  to  keep 
their  clay  together  and  see  that  it  is  in  perfect  condition.  It  must  be  quite 
soft  for  very  little  fingers,  and  still  not  soft  enough  to  stick.  Make  no  at- 
tempt to  do  anything  with  the  clay  when  it  is  sticky.  Disgust  is  sure  to  fol- 
low if  it  is  handled  in  that  state. 

Many  simple  rosette  forms  can  be  made.  Make  a  form  about  the 
size  of  a  small  marble  and  then  press  it  till  it  is  nearly  flat.  Make  a 
little  disk  or  center.        Combinations  of  these  can  lie  made.        Make  the 


Elementary  Courses  199 

same  form  a  little  pointed  at  one  end.  A  large  series  of  rosettes  can  be 
made  witli  tlie  addition  of  a  little  ball  or  boss  for  a  center.  Rend  the 
leaves  np,  make  them  cup-shape.  Make  some  with  points.  With  some 
thou,s^ht  an  endless  variety  of  these  forms  can  be  devised  which  will  give 
a  great  deal  of  pleasure  to  the  child  and  variety  to  the  lesson.  Be  care- 
ful not  to  let  the  children  lire  of  any  of  the  forms.  .\  teacher  of  course  can 
make  one  of  these  forms  in  a  half-minute,  but  for  very  young  children  two 
or  three  of  the  forms  are  cpiite  sufiicient  for  one  lesson. 

A  number  of  natural  forms  can  be  made.  Roll  out  a  piece  of  clay  into 
a  ball,  about  the  size  of  a  marble.  Press  it  till  it  is  nearly  llat,  make  a  little 
stem  liy  rolling  out  another  piece,  and  we  have  a  very  good  imitation  of  a 
mushroom.  Bend  the  top  over  the  stem  a  little  and  stick  it  on  the  board  in 
a  standing  position.  Make  several  sizes,  forming  a  group.  Easy  fruit 
forms  can  be  made  by  rolling  out  pieces  till  they  form  a  ball  about  the  size  of 
a  marble,  then  putting  long  stems  to  them,  making  bunches  of  two  and  three 
like  cherries.       Plums  can  be  made  with  the  small  stems. 

Animal  Forms. — .\n  interesting  series  can  be  made  from  various 
animal  ftirnis.  Of  course  these  must  be  reproduced  from  memory.  It  is 
wonderful  how  quickly  the  chiklren  grasj)  the  idea  of  form  after  a  few  lessons 
in  making  these  elementary  shapes  and  how  soon  they  get  an  amount 
of  detail.  But  do  not  expect  them  at  the  llrst  few  lessons  to  master  detail, 
since  they  begin  to  apprehend  this  only  after  they  have  taken  notice  of 
things,  through  the  desire  to  make  them  in  clay.  Do  not  mind  how  poor 
the  forms  are  the  first  few  days. 

l.vt  us  begin  with  a  chicken.  Take  a  piece  of  clay  about  the  .size  of  a 
-mall  hen's  egg.  This  will  form  the  body.  Xow  take  another  piece  of 
clay  and  roll  it  in  the  palms  till  it  is  about  the  size"  of  a  small  marble.  Place 
this  on  the  large  piece  ior  the  head.  Xext  add  a  little  p\ccc  of  clay  for  the 
bill,  two  dots  or  two  little  balls  for  eyes,  and  a  few  marks  on  the  side  for 
wings.  If  desired,  a  very  short  tail  can  be  i)inched  out  at  the  end.  This 
can  be  made  with  a  few  touches  to  look  like  a  very  small  chicken. 

Xext  we  can  attempt  a  little  duck  form.  This  is  more  complex  than 
the  chicken,  and  can  be  made  about  the  same  size.  Make  the  neck  longer 
and  give  it  a  nice  curve,  make  the  bill  a  little  longer  and  thicker.  The  t.iil 
can  be  made  longer,  and  the  wings  marked  a  little  more  carefully 

A  somewhat  similar  form  can  be  made  to  represent  the  swan.       It  has 


200 


Modeling 


a  body  of  the  same  shape  as  the  duck,  rather  a  httle  larger,  with  a  long 
curving  neck,  whicli  needs  to  be  made  separately  and  fastened  on  the  body. 
See  that  there  is  a  double  curve  in  the  neck  and  that  it  bends  back  over  the 
body.       Give  it  a  nice  swan's  neck  curve.       Two  wings  can  be  made  by 

Illustration  258 


-a*^ 


■—    "^      w 


.-'*:jc^  ^i>&_ 


Eleinentary  Forms  in  Clay 
All  of  these  forms  are  suitable  for  very  young  children,  and  are  first  attempts  made  by  beginners. 


flattening  out  some  clay,  and  they  can  be  pressed  onto  the  sides  of  the  body 
so  that  they  stand  out.  The  result  looks  much  more  elaborate,  but  it  is 
quite  as  simple  to  make  as  the  chicken  or  tlie  duck. 

Understand  the  object  of  these  lessons.  It  does  not  matter  how 
grotesque  these  forms  are  at  the  start.  The  early  art  work  of  all  races  of 
people  is  grotesque  and  their  products  are  often  examples  of  how  children 
should  or  do  draw  in  the  beginning.  ^'e^y  many  adults,  as  well  as  chil- 
dren, cannot  recall  the  shape  of  a  duck  in  the  beginning,  but  no  one  can  en- 
deavor to  make  it  from  memory  without  memorizing  the  next  time  they  see 
a  duck,  a  swan  or  a  chicken,  some  part  that  they  had  never  noticed  before. 


Elementary  Courses  20t 

A  specially  valuable  part  of  the  lesson  is  the  fact  that  it  compels  one  to  niem- 
orize  form.  If  I  am  modeling  a  frog  from  memory,  and  do  not  know  the 
number  of  toes,  I  may  make  three,  four  or  five,  but  the  next  time  I  see  a 
real  frog  I  will  satisfy  myself  on  that  point  and  fix  that  knowledge  so  firmly 
in  my  mind  that  I  am  not  likely  to  forget  it. 

Usually  I  do  not  tell  my  children  details  of  this  kind.  I  prefer 
that  they  should  learn  the  truth  by  investigation.  Some  people  do  not 
know  how  many  toes  a  dog  has,  or  a  chicken,  or  a  canary.  If  they  are 
compelled  to  draw  or  model  the  form  from  memory,  they  discover 
their  ignorance,  and  by  observation  of  the  real  form  they  learn  to 
grasp  the  detail.  So  it  is  with  little  children.  At  first  the  forms 
will  be  very  crude,  but  when  they  begin  to  make  things  that  they 
have  investigated,  it  is  wonderful  what  an  amount  of  detail  they  will  em- 
body. Remember,  these  are  simply  generalized  forms.  Imagination  is 
the  result  of  a  series  of  impressions.  It  is  only  when  we  have  received  a 
sufficient  number  of  impressions  through  the  different  sense  channels  that 
we  begin  to  l)e  able  to  represent  the  essential  facts  of  form.  This  work  I 
sometimes  call  compulsory  memory  work. 

Children  should  be  encouraged  to  make  clay  figures  of  any  kind  they 
desire,  clay  horses  or  sheep  or  men  and  women,  like  the  Mexican  toys  which 
imitate  these  figures.  They  should  be  allowed  to  give  expression  to  their 
feelings  and  imagination  with  tlie  pencil  in  making  horses,  buflfalo,  Indians, 
etc.,  ships,  war  vessels,  etc.  They  will  often  be  found  to  draw  them  with  the 
same  character  and  simplicity  that  the  Indians  do.  They  grasp  essentialities 
and  iirnnre  details — the  first  thing  desired  in  good  work. 

Other  Animal  Forms. — A  starfish  is  a  good  form  to  model.  Make 
the  five  tapering  members  first,  about  the  same  size,  by  rolling  out  to  a 
point,  and  then  join  them  in  the  center.  Rend  the  form  till  it  assumes  a 
natural  position  and  make  the  detail  with  the  tool.  Make  several  sizes  of 
this  form.  Do  not  make  them  .so  large  that  they  cannot  be  modeled  with 
the  fingers. 

.\  snake  about  six  or  seven  inches  long  is  very  good  practice.  Roll 
it  out  first  in  the  hands  and  then  on  the  board.  Let  it  taper  to  a  fine  point, 
make  the  head  a  little  thick,  the  neck  a  little  thin,  flatten  the  hca<l.  make 
the  features,  mouth  and  eyes  with  the  tool,  and  then  bend  in  a  natural  posi- 
tion.      A  good  plan  is  to  coil  it  with  the  head  standing  erect  as  though  it 


202 


Modelingf 


were  going  to  strike.  Another  good  j^osition  is  to  curve  it.  as  thongli  it 
were  moving  along  the  ground.  A  snake  makes  a  series  of  beautiful 
curves  in  moving,  and  very  nice  forms  can  be  made  by  modeling.  Make 
Illustration  .59  two  or  three.     In  the  l^egin- 

ning",  of  course,  only  the 
most  elementary  kind  of 
forms  can  be  made  to  sug- 
gest a  snake,  but  as  the 
lessons  progress  w  i  t  h 
practice  the  l:)od_\'  can  be 
thickened  a  little  in  the 
middle,  tapering  to  the  tail, 
scales  can  be  modeled,  a 
forked  tongue  can  I  )e  placed 
in  the  mouth,  and  so  on. 
Lhudren  are  fascmated  by 
thesesmall  living  forms, and  afterafewattemptsgraspmanyunnoticed  details. 
The  fish  form  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  shapes  to  make.  Roll  out  a  piece 
of  clay  about  the  size  of  an  egg  till  it  is  a  little  pointed  at  each  end.  flatten 
slightly  between  the  two  hands,  then  adtl  the  pointed  tail,  making  it  quite 
sharp  and  thin  on  the  edge.  (Illus.  261).  Let  the  body  be  thick  in  the 
middle  and  taper  to  the  tail.  Make  the  two  dorsal  fins  thick  near  the  body 
and  tapering  to  a  thin  edge.  Do  the  same  with  the  pectoral  tin  on  the  side, 
and  with  the  anal  fin  underneath.  The  gills  can  be  marked  with  the  tool 
and  the  eye  can  be  pressed  in  -with  its  point,  or  a  little  ball  can  be  made  to 
represent  the  eye,  stuck  on  and  tlien  modeled.  The  mouth  can  also  be 
made  with  the  tool.  * 

There  is  an  endless  variety  of  beautiful  fish  forms.  In  making  this 
elementary  fish  form,  however,  a  very  simple  shape  can  be  selected,  a  gen- 
eralized fish,  or  a  tyi)ical  fish  form  if  you  wish.  A  very  realistic  effect  can  be 
made  by  putting  the  rays  and  spines  on  the  fins  and  tail  with  the  tool.  The 
scales  can  also  be  marked,  and  if  the  fish  is  curved  a  little  it  will  look  quite 
realistic.     Numerous  pictures  of  modeled  fish  ocur  in  this  work. 

A  small  frog  can  be  made.  Take  a  small  piece  of  clay,  roughly  shape 
it  with  the  fingers  about  the  size  of  the  body  of  a  medium-sized  frog.  The 
mouth  can  be  made  with  the  tool,  two  little  balls  can  be  stuck  on  for  eyes, 


Elementary  Ojurses 


203 


the  nnigh  places  on  tlic  l)ack  can  be  modeled  with  the  tool,  then  the  two 
hind  lesrs  can  be  made.  Make  the  leg.s  bent  in  the  position  of  a  fro^  sittinjj 
down.  Then  make  tiie  two  little  fore-feet  with  smaller  pieces  of  clay,  add- 
ing the  toes  last. 

Xext  make  a  small  turtle.  Do  not  mind  if  .some  of  the  children  have 
not  even  seen  a  turtle  or  cannot  recall  the  number  of  feet  it  has.  Make  the 
body  about  the  size  of  an  egg.  flatten,  cut  the  division  between  the  two 
shells  with  the  tool,  make  the  ca\iiics  for  the  four  legs,  a  cavity  for  the  head 
and  another  for  the  tail.  Make  a  pointetl  tail,  make  a  head  something  like 
a  snake's  head,  partly  flattened,  and  then  the  four  flippers.  Of  course  the 
teacher  should  l)e  able  to  make  each  one  of  these  forms  cpiickly  as  a  sug- 
gestion to  the  class,  giving  some  idea  of  the  size,  and  as  much  detail  as  pos- 
sible. Tlie  pupils,  however,  are  not  to  copy  this  model.  They  can  look 
at  it  and  recall  the  mental  image,  as  far  as  they  have  gained  one.  of  the  turtle 
or  tortoise. 

A  lizard  makes  a  good  form  to  model.       Roll  out  the  body  just  as  wc 


Illustration  360 


Mudilinii:   \  .iri.Miv   N.iiiir.il  ll|,jicl> 


form  the  body  of  a  snake,  make  the  tail  taper  to  a  |)<)ini,  in.ike  the  neck  .1 
little  thin,  flatten  the  head,  form  the  mouth,  eyes,  etc.,  with  the  tool.  Then 
the  legs  can  be  formed  by  smaller  pieces  of  clay  bent  and  added  onto 
the  sides. 


204 


Modelingf 


A  little  mouse  can  be  made.  Model  the  body,  tiien  add  the  long  tail, 
tiie  two  ears,  make  the  detail  with  the  tool.  If  desired  the  feet  can  show- 
peeping  out  from  Ijeneath  the  body. 

These  small  life  forms  are  suggested  because  children  are  especially 
fond  of  them,  and  although  the  product  will  be  very  crude  at  first,  impres- 
sions are  being  made  that  cause  the  children  to  become  very  attentive  to  the 
forms  when  they  meet  with  them  again.  Their  ideas  unconsciously  become 
clearer  and  more  vivid.  Remarkable  instances  of  observation  of  detail  will 
constantly  be  made  by  pupils  from  particular  forms  that  interest  them. 

Illustration  261 


K 


(  J^ 


Eiementarv  ModcHn;r  of  Animal  Forms 


Vessel  Forms. — A  good  e.xercise  is  to  make  a  little  vessel  form. 
Take  a  piece  of  clay  about  the  size  of  a  small  egg,  press  it  in  the  center  till 
you  form  a  cavity,  bending  up  the  edge  all  around  at  the  same  time  with  the 
fingers,  till  it  forms  a  hollow,  cup-shaped  form.  (Illus.  261.)  Do  not  let 
it  become  flat  like  a  saucer.  Make  the  base  by  pressing  it  on  the  board, 
and,  by  rotating  it  a  little  between  the  four  fingers  and  thumb,  it  can  grad- 
ually be  made  small  and  cup-like.  Do  not  let  it  be  thick  and  thin  in  places. 
Smooth  away  the  little  hills  and  hollows,  and  resist  the  tendency  of  the  cup 
to  spread  out.  Let  it  be  about  i  inch  or  i|  inches  in  height  and  perhaps  2 
inches  in  diameter  anfl  about  f  inch  thick.  This  is  a  splendid  exercise  for 
manipulation.       Work  with  it  till  the  rim  or  top  is  a  good  circle.     Let  the 


Elementary  Courses  205 

base  form  a  true  circle.  This  requires  a  little  more  manual  dexterity  than 
one  would  think  to  make  it  good  in  shape.  Endeavor  to  make  the  inside 
smooth  and  the  rim  a  nice  tlat  edge  all  around.  Make  different  sizes.  With 
a  little  practice  small  vessels  for  various  purposes  can  be  made, — little  basins, 
bowls,  vase  forms  and  so  on.  If  these  forms  are  allowed  to  dry,  they  can 
be  fired  and  glazed  in  any  pottery  for  a  few  cents  each.  Beautiful  little 
vessel  forms  suitable  for  pin  trays,  flower  receptacles,  salt  cellars,  match 
safes,  etc.,  can  be  made. 

Next  take  a  piece  of  clay  a  size  larger  than  that  used  for  making  the 
cup,  and  make  a  small  shoe.  The  pupil  can  imitate  a  wooden  shoe,  or 
slipper  or  boot.  Press  in  the  cavity  for  the  foot  witli  the  thumb  and  fingers. 
The  point  can  be  made  to  turn  up,  in  the  usual  manner  of  a  wooden  shoe  or 
Turkish  slipper,  or  any  other  shape  can  be  made  as  desired.  Draw  the  at- 
tention of  the  children  to  the  fact  that  the  foot  is  wider  in  front  than  at  the 
heel,  and  so  on.  It  is  wonderful  what  a  variety  of  shapes  the  children  can 
make  after  a  few  lessons.  They  will  put  rosettes  of  different  kinds  or 
buckles  on  the  front,  and  sometimes  make  the  shoe  to  button  or  lace.  It 
requires  the  merest  kin<l  of  suggestion  to  make  the  children  observe  in  a 
very  little  while  all  kinds  of  shoe  shapes,  and  to  reproduce  them.  That  is 
the  object  of  the  lesson, — to  compel  observation.  A  very  good  plan,  if  the 
children  are  making  realistic  shoes,  is  to  draw  attention  to  their  own.  Let 
them  look  at  the  foot  and  theshoe.  Letthem  see  how  narrow  it  is  at  the  toeor 
the  instep.  Let  them  look  at  the  shape  of  the  heel.  This  form  also  makes  a 
nice  little  receptacle  for  pins  or  flowers,  if  fired.  Allow  the  jjupils  to  keep  it 
when  it  is  satisfactory  and  is  not  too  rough. 

The  ne.xt  form  may  be  a  bird's  nest.  Take  a  piece  of  clay,  roughly 
shape  it  by  making  the  cavity  with  the  tlunnbs  and  fingers,  working  it 
around  in  the  hands  until  it  assumes  a  cup-like  form.  Now  place  it  in  the 
middle  of  the  desk  or  modeling  board,  and  with  the  tool  make  the  ragged 
edge.  Try  to  imitate  the  texture  of  the  sticks  and  grass,  and  then  bend  the 
edge  over  till  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  nest.  Do  not  let  it  be  too  regular, 
make  the  form  irregular.  Allow  some  pieces  to  stick  out  in  an  accidental 
fashion.  Three,  four  or  five  eggs  can  now  be  made  and  placed  in  the  nest. 
Be  sure  they  arc  of  the  same  size.    (See  Illus.  jCk).) 

Take  a  i)iece  of  clay  and  make  a  rough  tree  stumj).  I 'nil  up  the  e<lges 
to  form  the  ragged  stem  of  the  tree.      Let  it  be  hollow  and  cup-shaped.    Let 


206 


Modelingf 


the  edge  be  very  irregular.  Pull  out  a  few  roots,  or  model  one  or  two  more 
pieces  of  clay  and  add  them  for  roots.  Be  sure  thev  stick  on,  and  that 
the  clay  is  incorporated  with  the  main  mass.  Do  not  simply  press  the  piece 
on.  hut  incorporate  it  with  the  tool  so  that  when  it  is  dry  the}-  will  not  fall 
apart.  Do  not  make  the  roots  or  rootlets  look  like  legs.  Let  them  be  ir- 
regular, one  on  one  side  and  two  or  three  on  the  other.  Make  the  texture 
of  the  bark  with  the  tool  by  a  series  of  short,  irregular  marks.  This  also 
forms  a  ver_\-  nice  little  receptacle  for  flowers,  pins  or  matches. 

A  small  basket  may  be  made.  Take  a  piece  of  clay,  press  in  the  cen- 
ter, making  it  hollow,  and  raise  the  edge;  let  this  be  about  as  thick  as  the 
cup  form  that  we  made.  The  basket  can  be  made  square,  oblong,  or  ellip- 
tical, as  desired.  Roll  out  a  piece  of  clay,  bend  it  over,  make  a  strong 
handle.  Do  not  make  these  handles  too  thin.  In  modeling  never  make 
anything  thinner  than  the  handle  of  a  small  teacup, — a  fine  China  teacup. 

Anvthing  smaller  than  this  is  sure  to 
Illustraton  262  ■  ^ 

break    with    handling.       The  texture 

of  the  basket  can  be  imitated  with  the 
tool.  This  makes  a  nice  receptacle 
for  various  purposes.  All  of  these 
forms  can  be  placed  on  tiles,  slabs  or 
plinths. 

In  making  a  tile  (Illus.  262)  take 
a  piece  of  clay,  press  it  in  the  center  of 
the  modeling:  board,  then  take  another 
V  _^^.  1  piece  and  add  to  it,  incorporating 
^^ '. i  one  with  the  other.  Do  this  contin- 
ually, turning  the  piece  of  clay  and 
pressing  it  flat  till  it  is  about  the  de- 
sired size.  Do  not  allow  the  clay  to 
A\'hen  you  have  a  rough  piece  made 
about  the  size  or  a  little  larger  than  the  size  you  desire,  take  the  knife  and 
flatten  it.  Keep  turning  the  tile  continually  and  give  it  plane  surfaces  by 
pressing  it  against  the  board  with  the  knife.  When  it  is  flat  enough  and  of 
even  thickness,  draw  with  the  point  of  the  knife  oil  the  top  the  size  of  tile 
you  desire.  It  can  then  be  cut  with  the  end  of  the  knife  blade.  Do  not 
cut  with  the  entire  blade  of  the  knife:  use  the  end  of  the  knife  and  let  it  pass 


A  .Modeled  Tile 

The  pupil  h.is  completed  the  design  in  cl.iy  and 
now  trimming  the  uneven  edges  from  the  tile. 


Stick  to  the  board,  fingers  or  tool 


Elementary  G>urses 


207 


througli  the  clay  so  that  tlicre  is  little  friction.  (Illiis.  262.)  When  the 
children  have  a  little  more  skill  ami  desire  to  keep  the  forms  they  make,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  mount  them  on  tiles, — the  animal  forms,  the  fruit  forms, 
rosettes,  etc. 

Illustration  263 


Modtlin);  in  Chiy  from  Birds 

The  p.incl  below  has  been  mod- 
eled, from  the  real  bird  shown  at 
the  left,  by  a  pupil  of  the  ^ammar 
grade.  It  is  quite  a  pood  lile  for 
such  a  voung  fiupil.  IVrfection 
mu^t  not  be  expected  from  the  chil- 
dren, especially  when  they  have 
had  but  little  experience.  But  the 
eagerness  with  which  the  children 
strive  to  faithfully  imitate  nature, 
and  their  enthusiasm  over  this  con 
tact  with  the  rtal  thin;;,  are  by  no 
means  the  least  valuable  character- 
istics  developed  in  the  young  by 
the  natural  education. 


1  ri..    Iteal   Bird 

Directions  for  modeling  birds  from  the  real,  or 
other  animal  forms,  are  given  in  Chapter  VI  of 
this  section.  Work  of  this  kind  is  much  more 
advanced  than  the  elementary  exercises  in  this 
chapter. 

« 

In  making  these  elementary 
forms  simplicity  of  work  is  one  of 
the  things  to  consider.  Remem- 
ber, the  entire  work  is  chieily  to 
compel  the  children  to  think  of 
and  to  memorize  form.  Children 
instinctively  endeavor  to  give 
expression  to  thought  in  all  directions.  The  miiul  is  worked  upon 
and  developed  through  the  .senses  by  externals,  and  it  is  to  compel  this  union 
of  thought  and  action  that  we  make    these    seemingly    trilling  exercises.* 


The  Clay  .Model 


•  lilrnt  are,  on  the  eflerent  or  motor  side,  nascent  movcmenln— that  Is,  intuitions  of  such  movements  as  h«»« 
been  performed;  on  the  afrerx.-nt  or  sensory  side,  they  arc  images  of  the  sen»i>ry  impressions  which  have  twen  capo, 
rienced,  the  revival  of  such  sensory  impressions  on  the  occasion  of  u  suitable  external  stimulus  being  /irrrrjili4m.— 
[Maudsley,  Physiolo|ry  of  Minil,  page  44J, 


208 


Modeling; 


Many  adult  minds  are  paralj-zed  or  wanting  in  certain  directions  at  maturity. 
Never  having  been  required  to  perceive  accurately,  they  do  not  remember 
correctly,  and  so  they  cannot  judge  soundly  or  imagine  truly.  As  I  have 
repeatedly  quoted,  "  accurate  perception  and  exact  memory  are  the  funda- 
mental bases  of  sound  reasoning  and  imagination."  Do  not  be  troubled 
if  the  results  are  not  artistic.  They  are  sure  to  be  pleasing  to  the  children, 
for  children  are  like  savages  in  some  of  their  stages  of  development. 

Many  people  speak  of  the  necessity  of  art  atmosphere  in  the  school 
room,  and  in  some  places  or  cities  fragments  of  the  antique, — statues  like 
the  Elgin  marbles,  the  frieze  from  the  Parthenon,  the  Venus  of  J.Iilo,  etc., 
— are  placed  in  the  school  room. 

I  find,  however,  that  these  forms  do  not  impress  the  children.  I  would 
rather  see  the  same  money  spent  on  natural  forms — real  butterflies,  birds,  fish, 
shells,  good  specimens  of  minerals,  etc.  We  must  make  the  children  love 
nature  at  first  hand.  W^e  must  inoculate  them  with  the  desire  for  beauty 
through  the  real  living  forms  in  nature.  Then,  later,  we  can  expect  some 
result  when  they  come  in  contact  with  the  great  art  works, — the  thought 
of  great  minds  expressed  in  concrete  forms.  But  it  is  useless  to  put  before 
their  eyes  the  perfection  of  Greek  art  unless  we  first  give  them  the  hunger 
and  thirst,  the  vital  love  for  beauty  as  it  is  exhibited  in  every  natural  flower, 
leaf,  and  shell,  and  in  the  various  living  forms  that  attract  and  fascinate  the 
young. 


> 

I                      .  .:l  1 

Various  Lciif  Forms,  Models 


niustration  266 


Modeling  original  dcsi^s  on  a  curved  surface.     Gr.iinm:ir  ^nidc  chitdrvn. 


CHAPTER  III 

Modeling  Fruit  and 
Vegetable  Forms 


Tp  KriT  FORMS  MAKR  A  GOOD  SERIES  OF  OBJECTS  to  \v..rk 
J_  fruin.      Endeavor  to  liave  tlie  real  fruit  if  possible.     W'c  can  start 

uitli  an  apple.  Let  the  cliiidren  take  up  the  apjde  in  their  hands 
first  and  observe  its  shajie.  Draw  their  attention  to  the  stem  end,  how  tlcei) 
it  is;  to  the  hlossum  enil.  how  shallow  it  is.  Let  them  continually  handle 
the  form,  during  the  le.sson.  It  is  {jood  to  study  the  colors  r)f  fruit  forms. 
Draw  their  attention  to  the  beautiful  shades  and  hues  of  tureen  or  red  or 
»*  r:o9) 


2  JO  Modeling 

yellow,  as  the  case  may  be,  on  the  apple.  Make  them  aware  of  the  facts 
before  them  l)y  speech  as  often  as  possible.  Take  a  piece  of  dry  clay  and' 
roughly  shai)e  it  in  the  fingers.  Do  not  let  be  too  large, — make  an  average- 
sized  apple.  Some  of  the  apples  will  be  large  and  some  small,  but  it  is  best 
to  choose  one  of  medium  size.  Do  not  let  the  children  make  any  of  the 
forms  in  miniature.  It  is  very  absurd  to  see  a  lot  of  apples  modeled  by  a 
class,  as  small  as  cherries,  to  see  grapes  modeled  as  small  as  peas  or  currants, 
and  pears  as  small  as  strawberries.  In  every  case  let  the  children  make  the 
forms  abotit  the  average  size  of  real  fruit. 

Use  the  tool  now  to  make  the  form  smooth,  working  it  all  over  the 
apple  without  scraping  the  clay.  Mold  it.  Do  not  allow  clay  to  stick  to 
the  tool  or  to  the  fingers.  Be  very  particular  about  this.  It  is  a  sign  of 
error  if  the  children  ha\-e  chi)-  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  fingers  or  sticking  to 
their  hands  anywhere;  or  if  it  is  sticking  to  the  board,  the  tool  or  the  knife. 
The  clay  must  be  made  compact,  by  often  caressing  it  with  the  tool. 
It  is  somewhat  difficult  at  first  to  prevent  the  tool  from  scraping  the 
clay,  but  with  a  little  practice  it  can  be  done.  Do  not  mind  if  the  form 
is  a  little  rough  or  shows  the  tool  marks,  in  the  beginning.  Remember, 
this  is  simply  to  get  de.xterity  with  the  hands  and  the  tool.  We  do  not 
care  for  the  product  of  the  first  efforts. 

Make  the  cavities  at  each  end  with  the  tool  and  endeavor  to  keep  the 
convex  cur\-e  like  the  model.  One  or  two  little  touches  with  the  tool  will 
give  the  appearance  of  the  blossom  end,  and  then  a  little  piece  of  clay  rolled 
out  and  inserted  will  form  the  stem.  Let  it  stick  to  the  side  of  the  apple 
so  that  it  will  not  break  oft  when  dry.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  character  in 
the  stem  of  an  apple.  It  is  usually  short  and  thick,  therefore  do  not  make 
the  stems  too  long,  as  is  frequently  done.  It  is  absurd  to  see  apples  with 
stems  almost  as  long  as  cherries.  Do  not  let  the  children  use  the  stem  of 
the  real  apple  in  the  clay  apple,  as  they  are  frequently  taught.  This  is  sim- 
ply trickery.  Any  child  able  to  make  an  apple  will  take  pride  and  pleas- 
ure in  making  a  good  stem  to  it.  The  only  people  I  have  found  who  com- 
plain of  certain  of  these  exercises  being  too  difficult  for  the  children,  are  the 
teachers  who  could  not  make  the  forms  themselves. 

Continually  draw  the  attention  of  the  children  to  the  minor  facts  of 
form  visible  on  the  apple,  and  by  degrees  they  will  perceive,  apprehend  and 
reproduce  these  forms.       Do  not,  except  in  special  cases,  perform  the  work 


Fruit  and  Vegetable  Forms 


2n 


for  the  pupils,  but  make  them  consider  the  form  for  themselves.  It  is  the 
idea  of  an  apjjle  that  you  w  ish  them  to  assimilate.  The  clay  form  or  prod- 
uct is  not  of  nflich  consequence.  Think  of  this  continnallv.  It  is  the 
concept  of  apple    firmly  locked    into  the    mind  in    all  its  various    aspects 


Illustration  267 


Plaster  Casus  for  Moilcling 
When  the  real  fruits  or  vegetables  arc  not  available. 


tliroui^di  the  senses  that  you  desire  to  produce.  It  is  a  very  good  plan  at 
the  end  of  the  lesson  to  let  the  pupils,  if  the  lesson  has  been  satisfactory,  ac- 
tually assimilate  the  apple  and  test  its  gustable  qualities.  This  adds  to  the 
permanent  impression,  remember,  and  is  a  very  good  lesson,  and  one  that  is 
usually  enjoyed.  It  will  do  no  harm  to  speak  of  the  structure  and  the  text- 
ure, the  color  and  the  taste  of  the  api)Ie  at  this  stage. 

Illustration  368 


Vcgrtablc  and  Fruit  Form*  for  Modeling 


Another  point  to  speak  of  before  we  leave  the  apple  is.  not  to  allow 
the  children  to  make  freak  forms.  Usually  in  a  large  number  of  apples 
there  are  one  or  two  that  are  very  much  distorted.  Draw  attention  to  the 
typical  apples.       It  is  not  neccsr.ary  in  the  beginning  for  the  child  to  make 


2J2  Modeling: 

all  the  accidental  kinks,  creases  or  curves  that  are  on  the  apple.  It  will  be 
sufficient  if  they  make  a  good  generalized  form  in  the  beginning. 

The  Pear—H  more  complex  than  the  apple  and  requires  a  little 
more  thought  and  care.  See  that  the  pupils  have  good  models,  nicely 
shaped  pears.  It  is  better  to  have  a  few  good  ones  for  the  class,  even  if 
thev  cost  more,  than  to  give  out  a  lot  of  poor  shapes  that  are  perhaps  cheap. 
Take  a  piece  of  clay,  roughly  shape  it  like  the  pear,  depressing  it  at  one 
end.  Use  the  tool  to  smooth  the  surface,  as  described  in  making  the  apple, 
alwavs  getting  the  main  form  of  the  pear  first  with  the  hands.  Do  not 
make  the  forms  too  large.  It  is  the  tendency  with  all  beginners  to  exag- 
gerate the  size. 

Do  not  hesitate  to  take  the  tool  in  the  left  hand  continually.  It  feels 
very  awkward  in  the  beginning,  but  in  all  modeling  the  tool  has  to  be  used 
sometimes  with  one  hand,  sometimes  with  the  other.  Later  on,  in  large 
forms,  the  tool  is  held  a  great  deal  with  both  hands.  Notice  that  the  blos- 
som end  is  not  so  deep  as  in  the  apple,  that  the  stem  end  has  a  distinct 
character,  and  that  the  stem  is  usually  a  little  longer  than  the  apple  stem. 
Of  course  there  may  be  exceptions.  Notice  also  the  dift'erence  in  color  of 
the  pears  and  in  the  texture  of  the  skin,  some  pears  being  quite  rough  in 
texture,  others  smooth. 

With  a  little  practice  texture  can  be  imitated  very  successfully.  The 
smooth  chul)ljiness  of  a  tomato  can  be  rendered:  also  the  texture  of  cloth, 
velvet,  fur,  and  so  on.  Of  course  at  first  the  children  can  not  try  for  any  of 
these  qualities.  I  simply  mention  them  to  show  the  possibilities  in  clay,  it 
being  the  most  plastic  medium  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  and  one 
which,  for  tliat  \ery  reason,  has  been  used  by  sculptors  from  the  beginning 
of  history. 

Hints  to  Teachers.  — ^lake  the  children  handle  the  model,  let  them 
look  continually  at  it  and  compare  it  with  the  one  in  their  hands.  Invite 
them  to  observe  other  pear  shapes,  show  them  the  typical  ones  from  the 
numl)cr  that  x'ou  are  using.  By  this  time  you  will  find  that  the  children 
are  unconsciously  using  either  hand  and  that  they  are  actively  busy  with  the 
touch,  the  vision,  the  muscular  sense,  in  the  work  of  assimilating  impres- 
sions. In  doing  this  work,  also  notice  that  they  are  overcoming  awkward- 
ness, for  at  first,  when  the  tool  is  used  in  the  left  hand,  it  will  feel  and  look 
verv  awkward.       That,  however,  is  soon  overcome. 


3 


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2J4  Modeling 

ll  is  liahil  onlv  that  compels  the  arbitrary  use  of  the  right  hand  in  niany 
operations:  and  the  hal)it  of  using  both  can  be  just  as  easily  taught.*  Par- 
ents begin  the  wrong  way  by  conii^elling  children  to  "  take  the  spoon  in  the 
other  hand,  dear;'"  to  hold  the  pencil  or  fork  a  certain  way;  to  change  the 
scissors  if  they  happen  to  pick  them  up  with  the  left  hand.  Surely  it  is 
good  to  be  able  to  cut  with  one  hand  as  well  as  with  the  other.  I  have 
never  yet  found  a  doctor,  dentist  or  scientist,  or  skilled  user  of  instruments. 
who  does  not  agree  with  this.  In  fact,  they  say  that  to  be  able  to  use  both 
hands  is  a  very  valuable  capacity. 

The  Bandtld, — Take  a  piece  of  clay,  roll  it  out,  make  it  four  or 
five  inches  long.  Some  bananas  are  very  large,  but  the  large  sizes  are  dif- 
ficult for  the  children  to  hanille.  As  we  have  learned  by  experience, 
the  medium  sizes  are  the  best  for  practice.  Try  to  make  the  planes  by 
drawing  the  tool  or  the  finger  from  one  end  of  the  banana  to  the  other. 
Sometimes  they  are  four,  five  and  six-sided.  Try  to  grasp  the  character, 
to  apprehend  the  main  forms.  The  shape  is  a  little  difficult  to  make  at 
first.  Draw  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the  color  aand  other  characters. 
Other  forms  that  can  be  made  are  the  peach,  the  lemon,  the  plum,  the 
grape,  and  in  fact  any  available  fruit. 

Fruit  Tile.  — A  good'  lesson  and  a  \'ery  simple  one  is  to  model  a  tile 
with  a  branch  of  fruit  forms  on  it,  making  the  twig,  the  fruit,  the  stems 
and  the  leaves.  Make  the  tile  about  eight  inches  long  and  about  four 
inches  wide.  Do  not  trim  the  tile  till  the  fruit  forms  have  been  modeled. 
If  you  trim  the  tile  in  the  beginning  the  edge  will  be  scarred  or  marred  be- 
fore the  form  is  finished,  and  then  it  has  to  be  trimmed  again.  Leave  that 
for  the  last  thing  to  do.  Take  a  piece  of  clay,  roll  it  out  about  the  size  of  a 
lead  pencil,  about  three  inches  long.  Shape  the  end  of  the  branch,  allow- 
ing it  to  be  a  little  thick  at  the  lower  end  and  tapering  to  the  top.  Place 
this  in  position  on  the  tile.  Then  add  another  piece  about  the  same  length 
and  aLso  tapering,  and  bend  it  to  form  the  shape  of  a  branch  or  twig.  Con- 
tinue this  from  one  end  of  the  tile  to  the  other. 


•  Habit— sclf-rcspect,  sclf.hulp,  application,  industry,  integrity,  all  are  of  the  nature  of  habits,  not  beliefs.  Prin- 
ciples, in  fact,  are  but  the  names  which  we  assign  to  liabits,  for  the  principles  are  words,  but  the  habits  are  the 
things  themselves— benefactors  or  tyrants,  according  as  they  are  good  or  evil.  It  thus  happens  that  as  we  grow 
older  a  portion  of  our  free  activity  and  individuali'y  becomes  suspended  in  habit— our  actions  become  of  the  nature  of 
fate,  and  we  are  bound  by  the  chains  which  we  have  woven  around  ourselves.— [Smiles,  Self-IIelp,  paije  404. 


Fruit  and  Vegetable  Forms 


!I5 


Next  make  one  or  two  liranches.  Make  these  l)raiiclies  fork  out  in  a 
realistic  fashion.  Be  sure  the  clay  is  thoroujjhly  incorporated  with  the 
main  branch.  Use  the  tool  to  do  this,  also  to  incorporate  the  stem  or 
branch  on  the  tile.  A  few  little  digs  with  the  sharp  end  of  the  tool  will 
unite  them  and  then  the  marks  made  can  be  removed  by  a  little  modeling.  Im- 
itate the  bark  of  the  cherry  tree  on  the  stems  or  branches  and  allow  the 
branch  to  bend  up  in  one  or  two  places.  Xext  make  two  or  three  cherries 
of  the  natural  size.  Place  them  in  position  to  form  a  group.  Then  make 
the  stems;  let  them  be  of  the  right  length.  J  inches  or  2h  inches  long  from 
the  cherry  to  the  branch.  The  cherry  stems  of  course  must  be  made  nuich 
thicker  than  they  are  in  nature,  about  as  thick  as  the  handle  of  a  very  fine 
teacup.  It  is  a  little  difficuit  to  incorporate  these  tliin  stems  to  the  main 
branch  and  to  the  cherry  without  breaking,  but  with  a  little  j)ractice  it  can 

Illustrations  269-271 


Ciuts  of  Lcnf  Form* 


be  done.  Bunches  of  three  cherries  can  be  made,  placing  one  on  Xk\>  of  the 
other  two.  and  the  stem  placed  in  the  same  way.  Make  one  or  two  bunches 
of  cherries,  as  desiretl. 

Lastly,  make  leaves  as  described  in  "  FJementary  Modeling,"  and  en- 
deavor to  get  the  fine  points,  the  serrations,  the  midribs,  an<l  otlior  features 
with  the  fingers  l)efore  placing  the  leaves  in  position.  Bend  each  leaf  so 
that  it  will  look  as  natural  as  pos>ible.       .Allow  the  edge  to  curve  ui>  in  one 


2J6  Modeling: 

or  two  places.  Make  several  leaves  in  this  way.  Cherry  leaves  are  long 
and  slender,  two,  three  and  four  inches  long  and  about  one  inch  wide.  Place 
the  leaves  in  different  positions  to  see  the  effect  before  incorporatiag  them. 
This  is  quite  important. 

Make  a  Composition. — Four  or  five  leaves  will  be  enough  for  this 
small  tile.  Then  take  a  tool  and  incorporate  the  leaves  carefulh-  with  the 
branches  and  with  the  background  of  the  tile.  See  that  they  are  well  sup- 
ported tuiderneath.  If  necessary,  block  them  up  with  clay  so  that  they  have 
a  solid  backing  connecting  them,  though  invisibly,  with  the  background. 
Allow  the  edges  of  the  leaf  to  be  quite  thin,  l.)ut  let  the  body  of  the  leaf  be 
thick  and  strong.  A  leaf  can  be  made  to  look  as  thin  as  paper  by  making 
the  edge  sharp  though  it  really  may  be  half  an  inch  thick.  Allow  the 
leaves  to  curve  naturally,  and  do  not  place  them  at  regular  intervals.  It 
is  a  little  difficult  at  first  to  prevent  their  looking  like  pieces  of  tin.  This  is 
a  very  good  exercise  for  young  people,  because  even  though  it  is  roughly 
done,  the  product  usually  pleases  them. 

An  apple  with  a  branch  and  sex'eral  leaves  on  a  tile  is  a  very  good  ex- 
ercise (Illus.  272).  ]\Iake  the  tile  first,  then  the  apple,  as  descri1je<l  in  our 
first  exercise;  place  the  apple  in  a  natural  position  on  the  tile.  Then  in- 
corporate it  so  it  will  not  drop  off  when  the  clay  dries.  To  do  this,  press 
part  of  the  apple  firmly  into  the  tile,  and  then  remodel  with  the  tool  the 
parts  marred.  Next  make  the  piece  of  branch  of  the  apple  tree  about  three 
inches  long  and  place  it  in  a  natural  position  near  the  ajiple,  making  the 
stem  reach  tlie  apple. 

Xext  model  a  few  broad  simple  leaf  forms  and  attach  them  in  a  group 
to  the  branch.  Take  care  to  make  the  leaves  look  as  natural  as  possible. 
Let  them  be  thick  in  places,  and  where  the  edges  show,  allow  them  to  be 
sharp  to  suggest  thinness.  To  give  strength  make  all  the  parts  solid  that 
cannot  be  seen.  Never  attempt  to  make  things  too  thin  in  clay,  like  leaves 
or  stems  or  twigs.  It  is  better  to  make  them  solid  down  to  the 
slab,  rather  than  to  have  them  so  thin  that  with  a  touch  or  two  in  hand- 
ling they  break.  Try  to  show  the  curved  surface  of  the  leaf  and  the  serra- 
tions with  the  tool.  It  is  a  very  good  practice  in  composition  to  arrange 
these  little  groups. 

Two  peaches,  with  branch  and  leaves,  also  make  a  very  good  exercise. 
I\Iake    the    peaches     on    the    tile    first,    side    bv    side.       Next     make     the 


Fruit  and  Vegetable  Form 


217 


brancli  and  tlien  the  leaves.       Try  to  grasp  the  character  of  the  leaf  forms 
and  tlie  arrangement. 

These  exercises  are  very  good  in  learning  to  fit  form  on  a  surface,  and 
also  for  giving  the  children  a  great  deal  of  pleasure.       For  tiiese  forms,  of 


Illustration  272 


Mcxlcliti^  Fruit  from  Nature 

This  pictun;  illustnitcs  :innlhcr  cliilil  ino<lclinK  ;in  iipplL*  nn  :i  Itniiich,  with  Icavch,  from  the  ri-al  fonii 
"Ut  in  the  o|H.*n  :iir.  The  l:ible  is  .t  box  with  a  hoard  upon  it;  two  inr>dclini;  t'Kil*  and  .t  knifv  only  hein|f 
used.  First  the  tile  is  made,  about  seven  inches  square,  then  the  apple  is  mmleled  in  the  hand.  As  soon 
.1.,  It  is  the  rit;ht  si£e  and  with  a  certain  amount  of  finish,  it  is  iiicor|>oraled  on  the  tile  in  the  usual 
Lishinn;  then  the  stem  is  made,  and  lastly  the  leaves.  U  i*  very  koikI  practice  making  the  character  of 
the  bninchcs  ;  they  are  quite  ruiijied  .ind  h.ive  distinct  textures.  The  same  is  true  ol  the  leaves ;  the  apple 
leaf  is  a  broad  one  anil  finely  marked.  In  mukin:;  a  tile  like  this,  the  leaves  can  be  made  solid,  then  the 
ed^rs  can  be  slij^hlly  raised  and  undercut. 


course,  models  may  be  used.  If  xou  cannot  secure  the  real  fruit,  stems  and 
leaves,  casts  can  he  purchased  ;it  a  very  low  price.  The  teacher  should 
have  models  of  this  kind  that  she  has  made  from  real  forms  herself  to  show 
the  pupils. 

Vegetable  Forms. ~\.cl  us    begin  with  the    potato.     .\  potato    has  a 
rough,  irregular  shape,  but  still  it  has  its  own  essential  character.       Have  the 


2{8  Modeling 

children  make  a  typical  one;  take  away  tlie  unreal  shapes.  Make  the 
eves  of  the  potato  with  the  tool.  Let  them  study  the  model  in  their 
hands,  and  draw  their  attention  continually  to  facts.  Do  not  let  them 
miss  an}'  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  potato.  The  form  will  stick 
in  their  minds  when  they  reproduce  it  with  the  tool.  I  cannot  resist  the 
tendency  myself  when  I  am  talking-  to  my  class  to  interject  a  stream  of  facts 
and  fancies  about  the  forms  we  handle.  Splendid  ideas  can  be  grasped  if 
the  teacher  is  awake.  It  need  not  be  a  lesson  in  modeling  only,  but  in  many 
other  things.  The  surface  texture  of  a  potato  is  quite  different  from  that 
of  fruit.  Make  the  children  apprehend  this.  But  because  potatoes  are 
familiar  forms  and  easy  to  get,  do  not  tire  the  children  with  them.  Lead 
them  to  appreciate  the  tints  or  coloring  of  the  potato. 

The  carrot  is  a  little  more  complex.  Do  not  let  the  carrot  look  like  a 
parsnip  or  a  radish.  Let  the  form  l)e  of  a  handy,  medium  size,  and  make  the 
texture  marks  with  the  tool.  Seethatthe  children  apprehend  the  texture  Do 
not  let  them  make  simple  cuts  or  jag  marks.  Give  them  a  little  time  to 
grasp  the  detail.  Have  them  handle  the  model  as  much  as  possible,  since 
much  information  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  through  the  touch.  Do  not  try 
to  model  the  top  or  the  leaf  part  of  the  carrot.  Let  it  be  cut  off,  just 
showing  the  stem.      This  can  be  modeled  with  the  carrot  or  added  on. 

The  Tomato.  — Take  one  that  shows  the  typical  form.  .Some  are 
very  much  distorted  and  some  do  not  have  the  features  clearly  marked. 
]\Iake  the  divisions  with  the  tool.  The  stem  end  will  be  found  a  little 
dif^cult.  Have  the  children  make  the  leaflets  separate  and  add  them  on. 
It  is  difficult  in  making  the  ridges  to  prevent  the  form  from  looking  like  a 
little  cantaloupe.  Do  not  place  the  ridges  too  regularly.  Use  the  tool  as  much 
as  possible  in  making  the  texture.  It  is  very  smooth  and  gives  good  prac- 
tice. 

These  vegetable  forms  may  seem  trifling  in  their  value  as  a  mode  of 
compelling  thought,  but  very  few  adults  realize  the  shape  of  even  the  most 
ordinary  vegetables,  simply  because  they  have  never  consciously  assimilated 
through  the  different  sense  channels  all  the  facts  about  them.  Their  im- 
agination is  not  vivid  because  their  impressions  have  not  been  distinct  or 
clear.  The  slight  i)ercepts  that  tlicy  have  fade  away,  and  it  is  surprising  to 
find  how  many  pupils  there  are  even  in  adult  classes  who  show  that  they 
have  not  the  beginning  of  an  idea  as  to  the  shape  of  an  egg  or  a  grape,  if 


o 


Fruit  and  Vegetable  Forms 


219 


they  are  requested  to  shape  it  without  the  model.  We  can  create  talent  and 
capacity  in  the  dullest  people  by  teachint;^  them  observation  in  this  way. 
There  are  plenty  of  people  with  good  eyesight  who  go  through  the  world 


A   More  Complex  Fonn   for  .Motlulink;  in  Clay 

It  U  wonderful  with  what  Adi-tity  the  children  may  reproduce  even  a  whole  branch  in  clay,  with  all  its  fruit  and 
leaves.  One  work  of  this  kind  wilt  impress  the  pupil  with  many  of  the  Butcinatini;  lessons  Nature  offers  so  bimntl. 
hilly.  When  an  important  composition  has  been  well  modeled,  it  should  be  tired,  and  may  uUo  be  multiplied  by 
plaster  cai^ts. 


without  seeing  anything,  and  there  are  many  with  very  poor  eyesight  who, 
aided  by  observation,  notice  many  things.  Modeling  compels  observation, 
perception,  reflection  and  conception. 

The  Tormp.— Make  a  medium-sized  one,  pinching  out  the  root  and 
modeling  on  the  opposite  end  a  part  of  the  leaves.  The  variety  of  form  we 
have  among  root  crops  is  wonderful,  and  it  is  by  receiving  these  vivid  im- 
pressions, through  making  them,  that  we  are  fully  impressed.  The 
texture,  structure,  color  and  form  of  the  commonest,  simplest  vegetables 
are  valuable  as  lessons,  if  we  can  organically  and  permanently  register  them 
without  wasting  the  time  and  energy  of  the  pupils.       Some  turnips  have 


220 


Modelingf 


beautiful  tints  of  color  ami  shading;  some  are  a  little  rough  in  texture,  and 
others,  like  the  Swedish  turniji,  are  quite  smooth. 

Hitch  on  to  your  lesson  as  many  facts  as  possible.  Do  not  let  the  work 
become  drudgery.  j\Iany  other  vegetable  forms  can  be  given,  but  do  not 
let  the  pupils  tire  of  any  one.  Give  them  variety.  We  all  need  it  to  keep 
our  faculties  and  our  interest  in  trim.  It  is  a  natural  craving  that  we  have 
for  new  fields  to  conquer.  It  is  not  right  to  teach  only  a  few  set  forms 
continually  instead  of  the  variety  that  Providence  provides  for  our  special 
study  and  delight.  The  children  cannot  readily  eat  the  raw  vegetables,  so 
that  you  must  make  up  to  them  for  it  by  giving  them  more  food  for  thought, 
taking  extra  pains  to  make  the  accompanying  talk  both  interesting  and 
instructiye. 


Master  Model  of  Shield 


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CHAPTER    IV 

Modelings 
Geometric  Forms 


rHE  SIMPLER  GEOMETRIC  FORMS  can  l.e  readily  modeled 
into  shape.  They  are  not  \er\  ])leasing  or  interesting,  Iiut  they 
}iel(l  useful  and  necessary  lessons,  and  in  tcachintj  little  children 
this  is  the  only  palatable  way  in  which  these  uninteresting'  exercises  can  he 
served.  The  child's  awakening  mind  can  grasp  only  what  it  sees, — an  abso- 
hite  thing,  an<l  here  we  give  it  the  opjiortunity  to  grasp  geometric  form 
itself  directly,  not  through  a  needlessMelinition.  ' 

It  is  wrong  to  tire  the  children  with  these  abstract  shapes.  The 
geometric  forms  are  essential  and  necessary  at  certain  stages  of  education, 
but  to  present  them  continually  all  through  the  various  grades  creates  in- 
tense dislike.  Excejit  for  modeling  a  few  limes,  they  should  not  be  used 
in  the  earlv  stages.  I  have  known  children  to  be  com|)lctely  spoiled  for  art 
work  by  having  these  unmeaning  forms  ])resented  to  them  so  often. 

Experience  teaches  that  there  is  a  feasible  size  for  these  geometric 
forms.       In  some  schools  they  are  maile  very  large,  and  in  others  much  too 

'22t) 


222 


Modeling 


small.  The  best  way  will  be  to  make  the  forms  of  a  size  that  can  be  readily 
grasped  by  little  children  and  made  without  the  use  of  tools  by  the  two 
hands  alone.  Many  of  the  geometric  forms  can  be  seen  in  the  pictures  in 
Chapters  I  and  II  of  this  section,  also  on  page  231.  They  are  shown  al)Out 
the  proper  size  they  ought  to  be  made. 

The  Sphere. — Take  a  piece  of  clayand  roll  it  in  the  hands  till  it  forms  a 
ball  about  1  \  inches  in  diameter.       It  is  quite  difificult  to  make  this  a  true 

Illustrations  278-280 


r    • 


t 


titii 


Models  of  Pilaster  Panels,    Italian  Rcnascencc 


sphere,  but  by  manipulation  with  the  thumbs  and  forefinger,  rubbing  away 
the  hills  and  making  the  rough  places  plain,  and  then  rolling  it  between  the 
palms  again,  a  good  sphere  can  l^e  produced  (Illus.  252).  In  making  this 
series  of  forms  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  ]nipils  place  the  forms  as  finished 
along  the  top  of  their  modeling  board  or  desk. 

The  Cube, — Next  make  another  sphere  similar  to  the  first  and  of  the 
same  size.  This  can  only  be  done  by  comparing  the  two.  Place  them 
side  by  side  and  take  away  or  add  clay  till  they  are  equal.  Now  take  the 
second  sphere,  and  tap  it  on  the  board  till  a  plane  about  one  inch  in  diameter 
is  made.  Ne.xt  turn  it  over  on  the  opposite  side,  parallel  to  the  first  plane, 
and  make  another  plane  in  the  same  manner.  Be  very  particular  to  have 
the  pui)ils  endeavor  to  get  these  planes  really  parallel  through  observation. 
Let  them  continually  look  at  the  form  in  their  fingers. 


Geometric  Forms 


223 


Next  tap  two  more  planes  o])posite  to  eacli  other,  and  then  two  others, 
making  the  six-sided  cube.  It  is  a  very  good  exercise  now  to  make  tliese 
planes  merge  together  by  tapping  on  the^  flat  board  until  the  l\)rm  is  a 
true  cube,  with  sharp,  clean  corners  and  each  jilane  ecpial.  To  do  this  with 
any  accuracy  recpiires  constant  attention.  Make  the  children  pay  attention. 
This  is  an  excellent  form  for  teaching  a  number  of  very  desirable  qualities. 
Resist  the  tendency,  especially  if  there  is  a  large  class,  to  tap  the  cube  care- 
lessly on  the  board.  Be  sure  that  it  is  grasped  correctly,  and  that  the 
children  continually  look  at  the  form.  Pay  strict  attention  to  position. 
See  that  the  pupils  sit  constantly  erect,  keej)  their  heads  level  and  take 
inspiration. 

If  they  have  to  look  at  the  cube  in  their  hand,  let  them  hold  it  up.  Do 
not  let  them  tip  and  turn  the  head  to  look  under  it.       If  you  wish  to  see 

Illustration  281 


Kt'ducint;  .\tanlhus  Ix-af  Fnriiis 
Antique  model.    The  work  i»  pluccil  u|iri|cht  on  an  fa»cl,  for  convenience. 


things  Straight,  you  must  look  at  them  with  the  hea<l  level.  Do  not  expect  lit- 
tle children  to  make  very  sharp  corners  or  very  correct  cubes  in  the  be- 
ginning. With  practice  a  i)erfect  cube  can  be  made  if  the  clay  is  in  right 
condition,  with  sharp  edges  and  fine  corners.       Any  teacher  can  jicrceive 


224  Modeling 

that  to  get  tliese  six  planes  equal  in  size  with  the  hand  and  eye  alone  is  good 
training.  To  do  it  a  few  times  is  also  pleasing,  Ijut  it  is  not  wise  to  tire  the 
children  l)y  giving  theni  the  geometric  forms  continually,  as  is  so  foolishly 
done  in  many  schools  and  e\-en  in  the  kindergarten. 

In  this  work  of  modeling,  we  are  using  the  master  sense  of  touch,  aided 
by  all  the  others  working  in  unison.  This  form  of  representation  produces 
a  healthy  activity  of  the  perceptive  faculties  that  is  valuable.  Here  we  are 
dealing  with  form  itself,  actually  making  it.  We  are  getting  all  around  our 
subject  and  are  in  this  way  made  conscious  of  all  its  peculiarities.  W'e  are 
getting  accurate  perception,  which  precedes  exact  memory,  by  performing 
deeds.  It  is  this  quality  in  sculpture  which  raises  it  above  painting  and 
drawing  and  places  it  at  the  head  of  the  creative  arts.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  sculptors'  drawings  often  possess  those  characteristics  of  strength,  bold- 
ness of  line,  truth,  which  can  come  only  from  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  gained  during  many  years  of  contact  with  form,  not  simply  by  look- 
ing at  it,  but  by  actually  making  the  forms. 

We  never  really  know  form  until  we  have  attempted  to  reproduce  it  a 
number  of  times  in  the  solid.  One  of  the  chief  objects  of  these  lessons  is 
to  impress  this  fact  on  the  pupil  while  studying  and  trying  to -make  these 
objects:  even  though  the  object  is  not  well  made,  you  are  really  gaining 
mental  development,  you  are  making  these  things  a  part  of  you  to  the  ex- 
tent that  you  gain  just  perception  of  the  thing  modeled.  You  are  assimilating 
concrete  knowledge  through  several  sense  channels  and  must  become  richer 
in  mind  for  it.* 

The  Cylinder. — Take  a  piece  of  clay  and  roll  it  out  l^etween  the  palms 
until  it  is  about  one  inch  in  diameter.  Gently  tap  each  end  on  the  model- 
ing board.  Let  the  cylinder  be  about  two  inches  in  height.  It  is  cpiite 
difficult  to  get  the  ends  smooth  and  flat  in  the  beginning.  If  it  is  rolled 
too  much,  a  hole  will  form  in  the  end.  Use  the  tip  of  the  finger  or  the 
thumb  and  fill  the  hole,  and  gently  pat  again  until  you  have  a  true  circle 
at  each  end.  Resist  tlie  tendency  to  make  it  too  long.  If  it  is  too  long, 
pat  down  until  it  is  short  and  roll  again.   Place  the  cylinder  next  to  the  cube. 


•  "The  human  brain  is  an  org.-ini/.ed  register  of  infinitely  numerous  experiences  received  during  llie  evolution  o( 
life,  or  rather,  durinsr  the  evolution  of  that  series  of  organisms  through  which  the  human  organism  has  been 
reached."— [Spencer. 


Geometric  Forms 


225 


The  Square  Prism. — The  next  operation  is  to  repeat  the  same 
cylinder.  It  is  a  little  more  ditficnlt  to  make  this  one  match  the 
other.  Then  take  the  second  one.  and  by  tapping  on  opposite  sides,  as  in 
forming  the  cube,  make  four  ])lanes,  converting  the  cylinder  into  a  S(iuare 
prism.  Do  not  make  it  too  long,  but  let  it  match  the  cylinder  in  size.  The 
chief  difficulty  will  be  that  it  tends  to  become  too  long.  Keep  tapping  it, 
and  continually  observe  each  plane,  till  it  becomes  a  good  square  ])rism.  then 
place  it  by  the  side  of  the  cylinder.       If  yon  have  a  large  class,  notice  that 


lllustMtion  282 


This  picture  shows  one  position  ol  the  hands  in  moilclini;  a  head.  The  IhuuihK  are 
"fcelinir"  the  form  near  each  eye.  Sculptors  frcquenlly  model  portions  of  the  fi|{ure  with  the 
tint;ers  alone. 


there  is  a  tendency  to  rap  the  forms  on  the  board  without  looking  at  the  re- 
sult. Make  the  children  look  to  see  what  they  are  doing.  Om  this  con- 
tinu;ilK. 

'^he  Cone. — Take  a  i)iece  of  clay,  roll  it  out  in  the  hand  so  that  it  be- 
comes of  a  cone-shaped  form,  and  pat  it  on  tlu-  i:ni\.  to  form  the  bast.'.     Make 


226  Modeling 

the  form  in  tlie  liaiuls  rough!}'  first,  and  tlien  use  the  flat  board.  It  must  be 
rolled  till  it  makes  a  perfect  circle  on  the  base.  This  form  is  difificult  and 
compels  the  use  of  a  good  deal  of  manual  dexterity.  Do  not  make  the 
cone  too  high.  The  tendency  with  all  beginners  is  to  make  spear  points 
or  little  steeples.  A  great  many  of  the  cones  used  as  models  have  this 
fault  of  form. 

Let  the  cone  be  the  same  height  as  the  cylinder  and  square  prism.  As 
soon  as  it  is  finished  to  your  satisfaction,  place  this  product  beside  the  square 
prism.  Then  start  another  cone  and  make  it  of  the  same  size  as  the  first 
one.  Notice  in  making  these  forms  tiiat  we  have  made  a  pair  and  turned 
the  second  one  each  time  into  something  else.  It  is  very  good  practice  for 
gaining  size  and  proportion,  to  make  one  like  the  other.  The  second  cone 
we  will  turn  into  a  square  pyramid  by  tapping  the  planes  on  the  board.  This 
is  still  more  difficult  to  keep  in  shape  than  the  square  prism  or  the  cube. 
The  base  must  be  a  good  square,  and  the  four  sides  must  taper  to  a  point 
and  the  pyramid  must  be  of  the  same  height  as  the  cone. 

Many  other  geometric  forms  can  be  made.  The  series  given,  how- 
ever, will  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  process.  The  forms  suggested  are 
the  result  of  many  years  of  experience  with  numbers  of  children  and  teach- 
ers, and,  if  the  operations  are  performed  properly,  must  result  in  valuable 
training.  Do  not  tire  the  children  with  these  forms.  Remember  con- 
tinually that  they  are  abstract  forms.  In  the  higher  grades,  when  the 
children  are  studying  geometry,  they  will  have  plenty  to  do  with  them,  but 
do  not  disgust  them  with  abstractions,  as  is  so  frequently  the  result  in  those 
schools  where  geometric  forms  are  reproduced  year  after  year  till  even  the 
sight  of  them  is  abhorrent. 

Notice  that  I  have  made  this  series  of  models  to  present  a  series  of 
transitional  steps,  each  one  a  little  more  difficult,  and  that  the  forms  can  be 
made  without  the  use  of  any  instruments  or  tools.  Children  will  take  great 
pleasure  in  modeling  these  forms  a  few  times,  and  that  is  the  reason  we  give 
them  in  the  beginning,  just  as  we  give  blocks  to  play  with.  But  the  essen- 
tial things  are  natural  forms. 

In  teaching,  never  mind  the  abstractions,  continually  think  of  the  im- 
pression that  you  desire  to  make  on  the  mind  through  the  eye  and  the 
hand.  If  the  impression  is  clear  and  distinct,  the  form  will  be  clear  and 
distinct.       If  not.  it  will  be  cloudv  and  nebulous.        In  talking  to  teach- 


Geometric  Forms 


227 


ers,  continually  speak  of  the  co-ordination  of  the  mind  and  senses,  the  tac- 
tual, the  muscular  and  the  visual,  and  of  the  power  of  observation  this  work 
g^ives  one.  tlius  enforcing  the  acc|uisition  of  exact  knowledge.  Teachers 
must  realize  that  they  are  not  simply  working  in  clay,  modeling  common 
forms  in  common  clay,  making  "  dirt  pies,"  as  some  ignorant  teachers  say, 
but  they  are  molding  the  human  mind,  they  are  shaping  the  "  stuff"  out  of 
which  immortal  souls  are  made. 


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A  SIkII  1-onii   tor  Modeling 


CHAPTER  V 

Modeling:  for 
Grammar  Grades 


/.\  MODELING  THIS  SERIES  OF  FORMS  the  pupils  will  pay 
jiarticiilar   attention  to  niakint,'    fine    curves,  and    .ijettin;j^    clean,  sharp 

detail  and  perfect  hackgrounds, — that  is,  making  the  tile  of  even 
thickness,  with  sharj),  true  edges,  and  so  on.  These  forms  are  alsf)  good  for 
grammar-grade  pupils,  and  have  been  tested  for  many  years  with  thousands 
of  children.  The  entire  series  is  t!ie  result  of  much  care  in  selecting  forms 
that  will  iU)  the  most  good  in  the  shortest  space  of  time.  The  forms  are 
graded  in  accordance  with  their  increasing  tlitViculty,  and  include  the 
elements  of  the  best  styles. 

The  single  forms  must  be  made  thoroughly  well  by  the  children,  and 
then  they  can  be  used  in  combination.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  pupils  to 
make  the  wIimI.-  <.Ti(>i         \s  soon  as  they  have  grown  expert  "lib  the  scroll 

(229) 


230 


Modeling 


Illustration  28 


and  the  leaf,  combinations  in  the  way  of  decorative  tiles  can  be  made,  using 
both  leaf  and  the  scroll.  As  soon  as  the  anthemion  and  scroll  have  been 
made,  these  can  be  similarly  combined.  As  soon  as  one  of  the  rosette  forms 
has  been  mastered,  it  can  be  used  in  combination  with  other  forms.  The 
same  may  be  done  with  shells,  the  ^Moresque  unit,  the  Saracenic  unit,  etc. 

In  Making  the  Scrolls  (Illus.  288),  build  up  a  good  solid  tile  at  least 
one  inch  thick  and  six  or  eight  inches  square.     Do  this  with  the  hands  alone, 

piece  l^y  piece,  as  described  on  Page  206. 
Do    not    allow  it  to    stick    to    the    board. 
When    it  is  aljout    tlie  right    size,  make    it 
plain  and  smooth    by  means  of  the    knife, 
but  do  not    trim    the  tile    till    the  form  is 
finished;  let  the  rough  edge  remain  to  pro- 
tect it.     The  last  thing  done  should  lie  to 
cut    it    square    and    true  when    the    entire 
ornament  has  been  modeled.    Now  take  the 
end  of  the  tool  and  draw  on  the  tile  a  good 
scroll,    similar     to     the     one     illustrated. 
Practice  doing  this  many  times.     It  can  be 
rubbed    out  with  a  touch  of    the    palette 
knife.     The  freehand  drawing  on  the  clay 
surface  is  excellent  practice,  and  with  all  my  classes,  adults  and  children,  in 
the  beginning  I  invariably  have  them  sketch  the  form  for  five  or  ten  minutes 
freehand,  since  at  first  it  may  Ije  a  little  too  large,  then  again  it  may  be  too 
small,     nius.  289  shows  a  child  making  the  single  scroll  in  clay. 

i\lake  the  scroll  so  that  it  fits  and  fills  the  space.  Let  the  ball  come 
near  the  center  of  the  tile.  As  soon  as  you  have  a  satisfactory  drawing, 
take  a  piece  of  clay,  roll  it  out  about  two  or  three  inches  long  and  about  as 
thick  as  the  finger,  and  place  it  on  the  drawing.  Then  take  another  piece 
and  place  it  in  the  same  position,  continuing  until  you  have  the  scroll 
roughly  formed  with  the  clay.  Next,  take  the  tool  and  press  it  into  the 
piece  of  slab  and  endeavor  to  get  the  curves.  The  raised  edge  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  modeled  form  is  the  first  thing  to  get.  That  is  called  the  "  mod- 
eled line."  Press  away  the  surplus  clay  and  try  to  swing  the  tool  around 
the  whole  length  of  the  curve  froiu  one  side  to  tlie  other.  ]\Iake  long,  con- 
tinuous touches.    The  clav  must  be  exactlv  right  in  consistencv.     If  it  is  too 


A  Srcoll  in  Clay 
With  .inother  scroll  flowinijout  from  it. 


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232  Modeling: 

soft  it  will  stick  to  the  tool.  It  is  better  for  it  to  be  a  little  too  stiff  in  the 
first  place  than  too  soft,  especially  for  the  tile  itself,  although  of  course  the 
harder  the  clay  the  more  difificnlt  the  form  is  to  make  in  the  beginning. 

Grasp  the  tool  in  both  hands  as  illustrated  in  most  of  the  pictures  show- 
ing pupils  modeling.  Of  course  tlie  hands  move  about  in  different  posi- 
tions as  the  tool  moves.  At  first  it  will  be  quite  ditihcult  to  sweep  the 
curved  enil  of  the  tool  from  one  side  to  the  other,  making  half  the  circuit  or 
even  the  whole  circuit  with  a  single  sweep,  l)ut  with  very  little  practice 
manual  dexterity  will  be  acquired  that  will  enable  you  to  make  a  single 
touch  continuing  all  around  the  scroll  with  ease,  swinging  the  tool  back  and 
forth  on  the  curve.  Notice  in  doing  this  that  you  are  actually  drawing  in 
material.  Do  not  mind  how  rough  the  work  is  if  you  can  get  this  swinging 
movement.  Resist  the  tendency  to  scatter  clay  crumbs  on  the  work,  keep 
all  pieces  in  the  hand  or  in  the  main  lump.  The  form  or  raised  edge  must 
be  equal  in  height  all  over  the  tile;  do  not  let  it  be  thick  in  one  place  and 
thin  in  another.  It  is  quite  difficult  to  get  this  quality  at  first.  As  soon 
as  the  curved  surface  of  the  scroll  has  been  made,  then  the  form  can  be 
clearly  cut  out  by  vertical  cuts  on  each  edge  of  the  scroll  and  the  sur- 
plus clay  removed,  keeping  the  tile  flat  and  smooth. 

It  is  not  easy  to  work  in  the  center  around  the  ball,  to  get  into 
the  corners,  to  keep  the  edges  sharp,  at  first,  but  with  practice  this  can  be 
done.  Do  not  mind  the  tool  marks  showing  at  first.  We  do  not  want 
the  work  finely  finished  or  polished.  Try  to  make  the  curves  as  true  as 
possible.  Eventually,  the  longer  the  swing  of  the  tool,  the  truer  and  better 
the  curve  will  be.  Do  not  let  the  curved  lines  look  as  though  they  were 
bent. 

This  is  excellent  practice  in  getting  the  hands  to  swing  curves,  and  it  is 
by  modeling  and  carving  these  forms  that  we  enable  our  children  to  draw 
them  with  such  boldness  and  facility  that  it  surprises  outsiders  who  do  not 
know  of  the  work  they  have  been  through.  All  our  children  make  these 
forms.  I  cannot  recall  now,  among  the  many  thousands  of  pupils  I  have 
had,  one  who  was  unable  to  draw,  model  or  carve  these  conventional  forms 
if  they  learned  how  to  do  it  in  this  way.  Of  course  if  pupils  have  been  al- 
lowed only  to  draw,  or  to  model,  or  to  carve,  I  am  sure  many  wotdd  be  un- 
able to  draw  the  forms:  but  l)eing  required  to  do  the  three  things  in  rota- 
tion, one  after  the  other,  they  get  a  manual  dexterity  that  makes  the  form 


Course  for  Grammar  Grades 


233 


Illustration  289 


organic,  and  enables  the  hand  in  the  end  to  make  the  form  automatically 
— without  conscious  thought — as  can  he  seen  from  the  various  illustrations 
showing  forms  modeled  by  pupils,  where  the  scroll  is  shown  in  combination 
with  other  forms,  sometimes  ten  and  twenty  times  over.  .Ml  the  luiits  of 
stvles.  and  most  of  the  ilrill  form  units,  are  modeled  and  carved  as  well. 
Any  one  can  see  what  a  great  help  this  is  in  making  forms  organic.  But 
when  we  have  actually,  through  the 
sense  of  touch,  made  the  form  in  soft 
material  and  then  actually  by  hard 
struggling  made  the  same  form  in 
tough  wood,  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to 
draw  it  on  paper  or  the  blackboard  with 
the  hand  as  lirni  ami  with  a  lino  as  clean 
as  though  it  were  being  made  by  a  steel 
bar.  This  facility  of  hand,  this  manual 
dexterity,  this  control    over    the  nerves 

and  muscles  of  the  hand,  so  that 

these  instruments  shall  do  as  they 

are  directed   bv  eve  and   mind, — 


One  Position  in  Molding  Modclinif  Tool,  while  Turninif  a  Scroll 
nolh  h:ind>  are  u»rd  :iiid  work  i-qually,  the  tiHil  chuiiuinK  |><i>iti"ii  cnimlant:y-»oinrliini»  the  lonciivr  >idi'  Iwlnij 
unil.  somttiini-s  the  ronvex.      Endeavor  tn  inilkr  free  nwinKini;  touches  in   lonif  a«  |><>»«il>le  •  do  not  allow  the  hands 
to  reJt  on  work.     In  the  above  picture,  one  hand  nr»U  to  enable  photoKraph  to  lie  Uktn. 


are  among  the  highly  desirable  objects  oi  maiiiiai  training  iliat  can  never  be 
attained  by  the  liiniteil  exercises  of  mere  shop  i)ractice.  Wood  carving  is  «>f 
wonderful  value  in  accomplishing  this  hand  training  and  character  growth. 


234 


Modeling 


Illustration  290 


The  Rosette  Form. — The  next  form  illustrated  (page  235)  is  the 
rosette.  Make  a  tile  eight  inches  square,  as  described  before.  First  draw 
the  rosette  with  the  tool  freehand,  making  it  to  fit  the  tile.  I\Iake  the  center 
of  the  rosette  in  the  middle  of  the  tile  and  then  the  four  leaf-like  forms 
one  after  the  other.  Do  this  entirely  freehand.  Do  not  make  construc- 
tion lines.  Rub  out  the  drawing  with  the  knife  and  practice  the  drawing 
of  the  rosette  several  times.  Then  start  with  the  center  boss.  Let  it  be 
about   one   inch   or  one   and   one-half   inches   in   diam.eter.     Be   sure   that 

the  clay  is  incorporated  in  the  tile  by  mixing 
the  boss  with  the  substance  of  the  tile,  so  that 
it  will  not  drop  off  when  the  form  is  dried,  then 
model  the  surface  with  the  tool  till  it  is  a  true 
hemisphere.  It  is  quite  difficult  at  first  to  swing 
the  tool  over  from  one  hand  to  the  other  in 
making  this  curved  surface,  but  by  persisting  a 
little  it  can  be  done  almost  from  the  beginning, 
iSext  we  make  the  four  leaf-like  forms, 
shaping  them  roughly  in  the  hand  first.  Let 
them  be  about  one  inch  thick,  sloping  down  to 
the  center  or  boss,  shaped  almost  like  a  large 
tongue.  Make  all  the  four  forms  before 
you  place  them  in  position  and  see  that  they  are  equal  in  size.  When  this 
is  done  they  can  be  placed  around  the  center  boss.  Squeeze  the  forms  into 
position,  being  sure  that  the  clay  is  roughly  incorporated  into  the  tile.  If 
it  is  simply  pressed  on  the  tile,  it  will  be  sure  to  drop  ofif  when  the  tile 
dries.  All  these  directions  are  not  only  essentia!  to  making  a  good  tile,  but 
such  thoroughness  helps  mind  and  memorv. 

Remember  this:  The  clay  must  always  be  incorporated, one  piece  of  clay 
worked  into  the  other,  if  you  wish  it  to  hold  together.  It  is  very  exasperat- 
ing to  make  a  number  of  forms  and  then  when  they  dry  up  to  have  them 
fall  apart.  This  is  usually  the  case  unless  care  has  been  taken  every  time  to 
incorporate  the  clay  with  the  main  mass.  Each  piece  as  it  is  put  on  should 
be  made  one  with  the  parent  piece. 

Now  the  rosette  must  be  tooled  into  form.  It  has  been  roughly 
shaped  with  the  finger,  and  now  we  take  the  tool  and  make  the  cup-shaped 


A  Complex  Rosette 


CJ       ft     . 

***  5  in 

E.  • 


OK         ^ 

2  i    < 


r.         w 

-.       C 


2       ~ 

I.   c 


1  ''^ 


1    § 
?■  to 


-c 

r- 
> 


rr 

5 


236  Modelingf 

hollow  on  each  leaf  with  a  single  stroke  if  we  can.  Pass  the  tool  over  the 
svirface  of  the  leaf  many  times  and  then  over  each  of  the  other  leaves.  Do 
not  tnrn  the  tile. 

The  object  in  this  exercise  is  to  make  the  four  leaves  in  four  different 
directions  while  the  pupil  keeps  the  same  position  in  relation  to  his  work. 
See  what  a  wonderful  amount  of  muscular  co-ordination  is  recjuired  to  turn 
the  hands,  both  hands  guiding  the  tool,  in  such  diverse  positions.  Perhaps 
we  can  make  the  leaf  quite  readily  and  easily  on  the  right  side,  while  it  is 
very  difficult  to  make  it  on  the  left  side.  Perhaps  we  find  the  lowest  leaflet 
quite  easy  to  make,  then  we  find  it  quite  difficult  to  make  the  upper  ones, 
with  the  same  movements  reversed.  \\'e  must,  however,  resist  the  tend- 
ency of  the  pupils  to  turn  the  tile  around,  thus  making  all  the  leaflets  in  the 
same  way,  and  allowing  the  hands  to  make  only  those  few  movements 
which  the\-  find  easy  to  acquire.  Remember,  this  work  is  educational,  and 
the  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  enable  the  hands  to  make  the  physical  co- 
ordinations all  over  the  complex  surface  in  the  dift'erent  directions.  When 
your  hands  can  move  readily  with  ease  all  o\'er  these  four  leaflets  without 
awkwardness,  it  indicates  a  great  amount  of  manual  dexterity. 

Do  not  mind  the  form  being  rough  in  the  beginning.  Make  the  edges 
sharp  and  clean,  let  the  tile  be  smooth  and  flat.  Make  a  good  broad  edge 
on  the  leaf.  Do  not  hesitate  to  make  the  touches  all  over  the  leaf  many 
times.  Do  not  expect  it  to  be  finely  finished  with  a  few  touches. 
The  touches  must  be  repeated.  Do  not  finish  up  one  leaflet  at  a 
time,  making  it  very  fine  and  smooth  all  over.  Roughly  finish  the  whole 
series,  and  then  go  over  them  again.  Avoid  finicky,  small,  feeble  touches. 
Avoid  ])icking  the  clay  and  making  small  pieces.  Model  or  mold  it  into 
shape  with  a  few  free  touches.  In  modeling  a  form  of  this  kind,  if  clay  has 
to  be  removed  from  the  tool,  we  do  not  pick  it  ofi  and  place  it  in  the  main 
lump  every  time,  but  add  it  rather  to  a  piece  which  we  keep  in  the  hand. 
When  we  need  to  add  more  clay,  or  have  to  remove  it  frt)m  the  model,  it 
can  be  taken  from  or  added  to  the  lump  in  the  hand.  The  last  step  is  to 
trim  and  square  the  tile. 

Position  of  Tools.— I  have  purposely  made  a  number  of  pictures  to 
show  the  dift'erent  positions  of  holding  the  tool  in  modeling  and  carving. 
There  is  no  one  special  hold.  The  tool  is  changing  from  one  hand  to  the 
other  constantly.       Experience  will  give  the  natural  hold.       Of  course  it  is 


G>urse  for  Grammar  Grades 


237 


Illustration  jqi 


difficult  to  get  the  movement  from  the  pictures  and  the  print  alone.  See- 
ing it  done  by  an  expert  is  the  best  way.  In  teaching,  the  teacher  should 
go  from  seat  to  seat  illustrating  movement  on  each  tile  or  slab,  if  necessary 
making  one  leallet  or  part  of  one  leaflet  occasionally,  the  pupil  looking  on 
and  learning. 

TTie  Leaf  Units. — For  the  three-pointed  leaf  form  (Illus.  291).  make 
a  tile,  on  the  tile  draw  the  leaf  with  the  point  of  the  tool,  making  the  ribs 
first  and  then  the  double  curves  forming  the  outline.  Practice  this  a  num- 
ber of  times.       Make  the  leaf  to  fit  the  tile.       Encourage  children  as  much 

as  possible  to  make  these  quick  drawings  on 
the  clay,  for  position,  before  beginning  to 
model.  Xcxt  take  a  piece  of  clay,  and 
working  with  both  hands,  make  the  leaf 
form  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick 
in  relief.  Make  the  stem  also.  Get  the 
entire  shape  in  the  rough,  with  the  fingers, 
in  the  beginning.  Be  sure  that  the  clay  for 
the  leaf  is  thoroughly  incorporate<l  with  the 
main  mass,  and  tliat  each  piece  you  add  is 
also  incorporated  with  the  ailjoining  surface. 
See  to  this  in  all  cases,  so  that  the  model  will 
A  1.V..1  rii.  not  come  apart  in  drying.' 

Properly  worked  together  this  way,  the 
clay  tiles  and  models  should  be  durable,  quite  strong  and  lasting.  L'idess 
they  are  struck  or  allowed  to  drop,  they  can  be  kept  any  length  of  time.  It 
is  good  to  have  shelves  in  the  class  room  on  which  to  place  these  forms.  In 
most  of  my  schools  all  the  walls  are  completely  covered  with  the  work  of 
the  pupils,  ^\'c  do  this  so  that  they  can  get  ideas  from  the  work  exhibited, 
ami  at  intervals  we  allow  them  to  take  their  proiluctions  home  ami  place 
others  in  their  stead. 

Next  take  the  tool  and  roughly  make  the  depressions  on  the  leaf,  first 
for  the  midrib  and  then  for  the  side  ribs.  Let  these  touches  be  bold  and 
free.  Then  model  from  the  center  towards  the  edge,  making  the  undula- 
tions on  the  leaf.  Next  make  the  double  curves  on  each  side,  beginning 
with  the  middle  leaflet.  Do  not  finish  one  part. — work  all  over  the  leaf.  In 
shai)ing  the  leaflet  on  one  side,  do  not  completely  finish  it.  but  make  almost 


238  Modeling- 

every  other  toucli  on  tlie  opposite  side.       In  this  way  you  will  tind  that  you 
gradually  model  balance. 

It  will  help  a  beginner  to  look  at  the  pictures  of  some  of  the  modeled 
leaves  in  this  book,  to  see  how  the  texture  is  produced  and  also  how  the 
carved  leaves  are  made.  Do  not  put  in  very  fine  detail  in  the  beginning. 
In  making  the  serrations  on  the  leaf,  model  each  leaflet  separately,  first  on 
one  side  and  then  on  the  other.  Hold  the  tool  in  both  hands  in  doing  most 
of  this  work.  Very  rarely  is  the  tool  held  by  one  hand  alone,  it  is  nearly 
alwa_\s  guided  by  the  other  hand.  The  same  is  true  of  the  chisel  in  carv- 
ing. This  form  can  be  varied,  a  five-pointed 
Illustration  202  j^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^j^  j^^  ^j^^  ^^^^^^  ^^.^^,  ^^^^j  ^^,j^g 

a  number  of    other    shapes  can    l)e    based 
on  it. 

The  Moresque  Form  is  quite  difificult, 
although  it  looks  so  simple  in  outline.  In 
making  this,  first  spend  some  time  in  draw- 
ing it.  It  is  a  little  difficult  to  make  this 
form  fit  the  tile.  Do  not  make  it  too  small, 
let  it  be  about  the  proportion  of  Illus.  292. 

The  Moresque  Unit  ,^,  .  .,  izii-.i  r  f 

lake  a  piece  of  clay,  hll  m  the  surface  of 
the  form  piece  by  piece  with  the  fingers  until  it  is  about  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  hight.  Allow  the  form  to  be  a  little  larger  than  the  one  yon  intend 
to  make.  Try  to  keep  the  double  curve  on  the  large  blade  showing  clearly, 
letting  it  taper  to  a  fine  point.  With  very  little  practice  you  will  find  that 
you  can  get  good  forms  with  the  fingers  alone.  With  the  fingers  the  clay 
can  be  thoroughly  incorporated  and  made  into  a  solid  piece.  Now  take  the 
tool,  and,  beginning  with  the  stem,  make  a  single  plane  from  one  end  to  the 
other  with  a  sweeping  touch.  I  want  you  to  draw  this  double  curve  repeat- 
edly on  the  soft  clay,  compressing  and  flattening  it  at  the  same  time.  Repe- 
tition will  in  lime  compel  acciu"ic_\-,  until  the  hand  is  able  to  make  these 
swinging  lines  quite  automatically. 

Next  we  will  make  the  other  plane,  allowing  the  modeled  line  to  show  a 
beautiful  double  curve,  the  modeled  line  being  the  raised  edge  in  the  middle 
of  the  form.  Swing  over  this  cur\e  a  number  of  times,  then  tr}-  the  curve 
on  the  inside  or  short  blade,  swinging  around  from  one  end  to  the  other 
repeatedly.      Next  on  the  outside  edge.      As  soon  as  these  planes  are  satis- 


Course  for  Grammar  Grades 


239 


Illustration  293 


facton-,  tlien  witli  a  single  toucli  cut  out  tlie  form,  beginning  with  the  large 
double  curve,  then  making  the  other  side  of  the  blade,  and  lastly  the  short 
curve.  This  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  forms  to  get  properly  and  still  one 
of  the  most  satisfactory  to  make  w  hen  practice  gives  facility.  The  entire 
form  should  be  made  with  a  few  strokes  when  dexterity  has  been  acquired. 
Do  not  make  finicky  touches.  Allow  the  tool  to  swing  from  one  end  of 
the  unit  to  the  other  each  time,  holding  it  in  both  hands  and  pushing  away 
the  surplus  clay  or  adding  on,  as  is  needed,  from  a  piece  in  the  hand.  Feel 
the  form  with  the  tool  and  draw  it  out.  Xext  clean  u])  the  background 
and  see  that  the  stem  is  narrow.  Much  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
raised  edge,  the  modeled  line;  for  although  when  the  model  is  flat  on  the 
table  this  does  not  show  very  plainly,  it  is  the  most  important  line  on  the 
model,  and  when  it  is  in  position  standing  up,  it  shows  more  distinctly  than 
any  other. 

*7^e  Scroll  and  Crocket.  — Make  the  drawing  of  the  complete  scroll 
first  (Illiis.  293).  allow  it  to  lill  the  tile,  and  then  add  the  crockets,  one  to 
each  corner.  Make  this  form  repeatedly  till 
it  fits  the  tile.  .\t  first  it  will  be  a  little  too 
small  and  seem  a  little  crowded.  Give  five 
or  ten  minutes  to  the  drawing.  Then  take  a 
piece  of  clay,  roll  it  out  about  the  size  of  the 
little  finger  and  place  on  the  drawing,  incor- 
porating the  clay  piece  by  piece  till  the  entire 
scroll  is  covered  about  thrcc-cigluhs  of  an 
inch  thick.  Make  the  form  a  little  thicker 
than  it  is  intended  to  be.  Now  add  on  the 
crockets,  forming  the  curve  and  the  tip  with 
the  fingers.  Let  every  member  of  the  class 
block  in  the    entire    form    with  the  fingers 

before  using  the  tool.  Then  take  the  tool  and  place  the  plane  or  curves  on 
the  surface  from  the  tip  of  the  crocket,  gradually  merging  them  with  the 
curves  of  the  scroll.  Notice  that  finally  the  concave  curve  of  the  crocket 
must  meet  the  convex  outer  curve  of  the  scroll:  and  the  convex  curve  of  the 
crocket,  the  concave  line  of  the  scroll.  Pass  the  tool  repeatedly  up  an<l 
down  till  a  nice  curve  is  made  all  around  the  scroll,  curving  out  each  tip  at 
the  right  place,  pushing  away  the  surplus  clay  with  the  tool,  and  adding  it 


Scroll  aaJ  Cnx'kct 


240 


Modeling 


to  the  main  lump  in  the  hand.  The  curve  around  the  center  boss  is  dif- 
ficuU  to  prockice  in  the  l)eginning,  but  with  practice  it  can  l^e  done  with  a 
few  touches.  Then  make  the  curve  inside  the  scroll.  This  can  be  very 
much  curved  or  almost  flat.  At  first  it  would  be  better  to  make  it  a  little 
flat.  Try  to  swing  this  from  one  end  to  the  other  with  as  few  touches  and 
with  a  movement  as  continuous  as  possible. 

Next  cut  out  the  form  down  to  the  tile  with  the  tip  of  the  tool,  draw- 
ing the  shape  of  the  form  repeatedly  and  removing  the  surplus  clay.  The 
pupil  must  be  very  attentive  in  doing  this  work,  otherwise  the  scroll  can  be 
spoiled  very  quickly.  The  crockets  make  the  form  much  harder  to  model, 
owing  to  tiie  curve  being  interrupted,  but  with  a  little  practice  crockets  can 


Illustrations  294-296 


Plaster  Models  lor  Drawing,  .Modeling-  and  Car\ing 


be  thrown  out  in  any  direction  without  any  trouble.  Later  on  the  double- 
curving  crocket  and  other  forms  can  be  introduced  on  the  scroll  in  the  same 
way. 

Combination  of  Scrolls  and  Leaflets.  — To  make  two  scrolls  in  clay 
flowing  one  from  the  otlier,  is  good  jiractice.  A  leaf  tip  can  be  modeled 
coming  out  of  the  center.  To  make  this  form  tit  the  tile,  and  to  curve  the 
scrolls  gradually,  one  from  the  other,  with  single  sweeps  of  the  tool,  is  capital 
manual  training.  Combinations  of  different  forms  can  then  lie  attempted, 
and  balanced  designs  made  for  \-arious  purposes. 


Course  for  Grammar  Grades 


241 


The  cAnthemion  is  perhai)s  the  most  diflficult  of  all  the  elementary 
forms  and  lakes  the  most  time  in  the  hci^inning.  (Illus.  J98.)  Make  a  full- 
sized  tile.  Make  the  drawing  a  number  of  times  first,  endeavoring  to  get  the 
form  to  tit  it.  Roll  out  the  lobes  in  the  hand,  beginning  with  the  center 
lobe.  Numerous  lobes  can  lie  made  as  illustratc<l  in  l>ook  Two,  Chapter 
I\'.  Be  sure  that  they  taper  to  a  fine  point,  and  as  they  grow  slim  towards 
the  base  let  them  also  grow  less  liigh  in  relief.  Rend  the  side  lobes  so  that 
they  curve  and  balance  nicely.  Make  the  lobes  match.  This  is  a  little  dif- 
ficult at  first.  Try  to  get  a  good  curve  to  each  one;  show  the  gradation 
in  the  form.       Try  to  feel  with  the  fingers  the  magnitude  of  each  lobe. 

Begin  tooling  with  the  center  lobe,  j^ush  away  the  surplus  clay,  and 
make  it  taper  to  a  fine  point.  It  is  difficult  to  prevent  the  stems  or  pipes  of 
the  lobes  from  running  into  one  another.  Beginners  cannot  help  this  at 
first.  To  keep  all  these  stems  gradually'  cur\ing  in  to  the  center  and  to 
get  them  to  diminish  gradually  requires  a  great  deal  of  skill.  Do  not  ex- 
pect fine  results  in  the  beginning.     Hold  the  tool  firmly  witli  both  hands 

IllUStnti'iTTs  717-^.°- 


Scroll  and  Leaflet 


Anthciiiioii  ill  Clav 


and  model  each  lobe  from  side  to  side.      The  widest  part  of  the  lobe  will  be 
the  thickest.       The  form  must  be  blocked  out  roughly  in  the  beginning 
with  a  few  large  touches  to  get  the  appniximate  bulk,  and  then  it  nin-i  b.- 
modeled  over  again  several  times,  each  lime  getting  a  finer  finish, 
ir. 


242 


Modeling 


Do  not  expect  good  results  the  first  time.*  Any  one  making  this  form 
can  realize  what  excellent  discipline  it  gives  in  attaining  dexterity  and  phys- 
ical co-ordinations.  Do  not  allow  the  children  to  turn  the  tile,  keep  it  in 
one  position  throughout  the  entire  lesson.  Of  course  if  I  were  to  move  it 
from  one  side  to  the  other  and  to  keep  my  hands  in  the  same  position  all 
the  time  in  making  each  lobe,  it  would  be  much  easier  to  model.  But  re- 
member, the  object  of  the  lesson  is  to  get  the  skill  that  is  given  to  the  hands 
when  they  become  able  to  move  with  facility  all  over  the  complex  form. 
Pay  particular  attention  to  the  stems,  clean  the  spaces  between  the  lobes, 
cut  the  tile  true.  This  form  is  much  used  in  carving,  modeling,  and  draw- 
ing, and  it  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  the  units  of  design  for  its  union  of  beauty, 
balance,  proportion,  grace,  etc. 

Illustrations  299-301 


Various  Arr.lngements  of  the  Anthemion 


The  Curved  Leaf, — (lllus.  302.)  First,  make  this  fit  the  tile.  Make 
the  drawing  a  number  of  times.  Do  not  make  it  too  small;  allow 
it  to  fill  the  tile.  Block  in  the  form  with  the  fingers,  as  described  in  makingthe 
other  forms;  be  sure  to  keep  the  efifect  of  the  double  curves.  Allow  the  leaf  to 
be  nearly  half  an  inch  thick  in  the  thickest  part,  while  the  back  of  the  leaf 
tapers  down  to  the  tile.  Model  a  large  double  curve  on  the  back  of  the 
leaf  first  with  the  tool.  Tn,-  to  make  the  surface  undulate.  Keep  the 
double  curves  of  each  leaflet  true  and  trv  to  make  tiiem  with  a  single  touch 


•"  The  repetition  of  good  action  generates  the  habit  of  doing  well,  function  developing  construction,  and  the 
habit  of  doing  well  generates  a  moral  feeling  in  regard  to  said  action,  which  it  becomes  at  last  a  pain  to  go  against." 


Gjurses  for  Grammar  Grades 


243 


of  the  tool.  The  spaces  between  the  leaflets  should  also  he  made  with  a 
single  touch  of  the  tool.  Get  the  texture  on  the  surface  of  the  leaflet 
representing  the  small  ribs,  then  finish  with  a  narrow  stem.  To  make  this 
leaf  with  graceful  curves,  so  tliat  it  appears  to  swing  nicely,  requires  practice. 
Try  to  prevent  a  thick  and  clumsy  appearance  of  the  leaf.  The  tool  marks 
will  give  very  good  texture  to  leaf  form.  Tiiis  can  be  made  much  more 
complex.  showiiiiLr  niore  leaflets. 

Simple  Shell  Forms. — The  real  scailojied  shell  (page  2},-))  can  be  con- 
ventionalized as  desired.  Make  the  drawing,  get  about  the  proportion  and 
size,  and  then  add  on  the  clay,  making  the  shell  curve  up,  being  sure  that  it 
is  incorporated  on  the  tile.  Repeatedly  speak  of  this  to  your  j^upils.  It 
is  very  uncomfortable  to  find  a  shell  form  like  this,  for  instance,  come  off 
the  tile,  when  it  dries,  especially  if  a  lot  of  careful  work  has  been  placed  upon 
it.  Try  to  get  the  halves  of  the  shell  to  balance  with  the  thumbs  and 
forefingers,  working  at  both  sides  at  once.  The  thumbs  are  very  useful  in 
this  work.  With  a  little  practice  one  can  make  an  entire  shell  form  with 
the  fingers  and  thumbs  alone;  of  course,  roughly. 

Practice  this  movement  continually.     Feel  the  balance  of  things.   Then 
you  will  be  able  to  draw  balance.     Sculptors 
often  find  the  thumbs  their  best  tools.     We 

must  use  the  fingers  as  much  as  possible. 

but  do  not  e.xpect  to  make  the  sharp  edges, 

the  fine  detail  expected  in  woodwork,  metal 

work,    stone    work,    and    so    on,    with    the 

thumbs  alone.     The  tool  must  be  used  for 

this.     As  a  person  becomes  more  skilled  he 

will    find    the    fingers    more    usehd,  and  in 

making  the    human  figure    sometimes    the 

thumbs  and  parts  of  the  fingers  arc  the  main 

tools  u.sed.    (See  Plate  Eighteen,  i)agc  235.) 

Use  the  tool  to  make  the  ribs  on  the  shell. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  make  these  taper.     The  shell  is  a  wonderful  piece  of 

architecture.     There  are  no  finer  lines  or  curves  in  nature  than  may  be  found 

on    a    good-shape<l     shell.     Try    to    make    the    lines    all     converge     and 

taper  gradually.       Model  <>n  each  side.       Ho  not  finish  one  side  first  and 

then  the  other.      It  is  much  easier  to  model  both  sides,  to  make  all  the  ribs 


lllustrafi  n  5.-^ 


I  lie   I  iirM.I     I,,  il 


Modeling: 


Real  Shells  for  Models 

All  kinds  of  shells  are  suitable  to  be  reproduced  in  clay.  They  are  cheaply  pur- 
chased if  not  otherwise  available,  and  otler  endless  variety  in  form,  proportion,  etc. 
The  accompanying  text  describes  the  shell  work  illustrated  on  page  235,  not  the  making 
ot  these  shells  in  Illustration  303. 


and  serrations  first,  in  the  rongh,  and  then  to  shape  them  np  and  make  them 
still  finer.  The  lines  of  growth  as  well  as  the  lines  of  texture  show  on  a  real 
shell.  If  you  are  copying  from  a  real  shell  endeavor  to  get  these. 
In  some  conventional  shells  and  models  of  shells  the  lines  of  growth 
are  left  out.  The  suggestion  of  a  spiral  in  most  shell  forms  where  the  lines 
meet  together  is  very  beautiful.  Try  to  make  a  true  spiral  instead  of  a 
bent  line.  The  last  part  to  model  will  be  the  serrations  on  the  edge  of  the 
shell.       Cut  these  out  with  a  few  simple  touches. 

It  must  be  constantly  remembered  that,  at  best,  word  descriptions  of 
how  to  model  are  inadequate,  compared  to  the  actual  doing.  The  reader 
who  will  tr\'  modeling,  who  begins  with  the  elementary  work  and  follows 


Course  for  Grammar  Grades 


245 


along  into  the  more  ilitVicult  forms,  will  (luickly  realize  the  merit  of  each 
point  advanced  in  these  pages.     Experience  is  the  best  teacher. 

The  stndent  will  lind  many  snitahle  forms  for  modeling  suggested  in 
the  drawings  in  Book  Two,  and  the  carvings  in  Book  Four.  Many  of  the 
plaster  casts  contain  also  suitable  forms..  After  making  a  few  of  the  simple 
units,  designs  should  be  made,  consisting  of  some  of  the  units  combined  in 
different  ways,  as  illustrated  in  the  [)icture  of  tiles  on  page  231,  and  on  page 
189  in  first  part  of  book. 


Gothic  Rosettes  Modda 


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AdvujucLd  Clay  Modi;ling 

These  boys  are  making  large  original  designs  and  animal  ronns  in  clay  for  architectural  purposes.    Advanced 
class,  K.  C.  High  SchooL 

CHAPTER  VI 

Modclingf 
Animal  Forms 


y^XnrAL  FORMS. — After  the  chililrcn  have  modeled  several  coni- 
^j^  paratively  elaborate  tiles  and  can  produce  simple  forms  with  good 
balance,  proportion  and  fitness,  they  should  be  allowed  to  model 
some  of  the  various  animal  forms  illustrated.  Small  heads  are  suitable  to 
begin  with.  .\Ilow  them  to  make  their  choice  of  the  sheei).  dog,  tiger, 
horse,  lion,  or  other  animal.  The  teacher  will  find  by  experience  that  pupils 
woxV  with  a  great  deal  more  energy  if  tliey  arc  allowed  to  work  on  some 
form  that  pleases  them.  The  series  of  head  forms  illustrated  in  306  has  been 
made  for  this  e.xpress  purpose.  Some  (jf  them  are  quite  difificidt  ami  some 
comparatively  simple,  but  if  a  boy  like  a  horse's  head  better  than  a  dog's 
head,  althougli  it  is  much  harder  to  model  than  the  dog's  head,  he  will  suc- 
ceed better  with  it.  So  it  is  with  girls.  The  girls  will  sometimes  select  the 
tiger's  head,  in  preference  to  the  sheep's  or  the  dog's  head,  although  it  is 
much  more  difilicult. 

(247) 


248 


Modelingf 


Do  not,  however,  let  them  attempt  the  \-ery  complex  fonns  till  they 
have  made  several  of  these  heads.  Let  each  pupil  have  a  separate  model, 
and  never  allow  two  or  three  pupils  to  copy  from  one  model,  if  they  areseated 
at  tables.  The  pupils  must  be  able  to  handle  the  form  all  over,  whenever  de- 
sired, or  to  put  it  in  any  position  desired,  to  compare  it  with  their  own  work. 
This  cannot  be  done  if  two  or  more  are  working  from  the  same  model. 
Build  u\)  the  form  in  the  rough  first,  being  sure  that  the  clay  is  thoroughly 
incorporated,  that  it  is  a  solid,  well-wedged  piece.       Do  not  allow  cavities 


Illustration  306 


Casts  of  Animal  Forms 

This  Bet  was  specially  modeled  for  school  purposes,  and  then  duplicated  by  making  plaster  casts  there&onu 
There  are  about  twelve  heads  in  the  set;  some  are  pictured  on  Jiage  iSl.  They  form  a  fine  series  of  models  for  va- 
rious classes.    For  further  remarks  on  these  and  other  plaster  models  of  Aarious  forms,  see  pages  1S0-1S4. 


to  form  in  the  clay.  If  there  are  many  air  spaces  in  the  lump,  it  is  apt  to 
crack  in  firing,  or  even  in  the  drying  when  it  is  put  on  the  shelf  before  firing. 
I  earnestly  desire  every  one  reading  this  book  who  wishes  to  get  sug- 
gestions on  the  work  of  modeling,  to  examine  carefully  the  pictures  given 
of  the  class  rooms.       Notice  the  varietv  of  models  around  the  walls  and  on 


Animal  Forms  249 

the  shelves.  All  of  these  pieces  of  work,  except  the  very  white  ones,  which 
are  plaster  casts,  have  been  modeled  by  the  piii)ils.  By  studying  these 
plates  carefidly,  ideas  can  be  received  as  to  the  best  way  to  work. 

Do  not  allow  the  pupils  to  make  details  in  the  beginning.  Blocking 
out  means  to  be  able  to  get  the  large  shape  roughly  first  without  any  detail. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  ditlicult  things  for  beginners  to  do.  Xearly  always 
they  will  begin  to  make  the  features  before  the  size  of  the  head  is  gained. 
Also  try  to  prevent  exaggeration  of  size.  Beginners,  especially  in  making 
heads,  will  almost  invariably  enlarge  the  size.  It  takes  time  to  overcome 
this  disposition.  If  the  illustrations  accompanying  this  chapter  are  carefully 
studied,  you  will  find  by  looking  at  some  of  the  pupils  working,  that  they 
have  produced  first  the  general  form  in  the  clay,  and  on  this  the  careful 
working  for  detail  is  done. 

\'ery  little  can  be  said  in  ]Mint  on  this  subject.  The  nioilol  is  the  best 
teacher.  Till  the  form  is  like  the  model,  the  pupil  can  go  on  working, 
changing  and  altering.  Allow  the  pupils  to  measure  if  it  helps  them  in 
the  beginning.  Rough  dimensions  can  be  formed  by  means  of  the  tool. 
Usually  the  plaster  models  are  much  smoother  than  the  forms  from  which 
they  are  produced.  The  plaster  casts  have  been  made  by  pouring  the 
liquid  plaster  into  mohls.  This,  of  course,  leaves  the  smooth  surface  usually 
seen  on  plaster  casts.  The  j)u])ils  very  soon  notice  the  texture  of  different 
substances,  the  texture  of  wood  when  it  is  carved,  the  texture  of  metal,  the 
te.xture  of  original  models  in  clay.  They  soon  tlml  that  it  is  not  always 
necessary  to  make  the  smooth  surface  of  the  i)laster  cast.  The  re<|uired 
surface  varies  with  the  different  forms.  There  is  no  one  kind  of  modeled 
surface.  On  the  head  forms  the  tool  marks  can  show,  as  they  do  in  some 
of  the  illustrations.  It  is  far  belter  to  show  the  tool  marks  all  over  than 
to  make  the  form  so  smooth  that  it  looks  like  a  piece  of  jelly  or  jjudding. 
.Any  good  modeler  or  sculptor  will  give  advice  about  his  work  at  any  time 
to  a  student  who  is  unable  to  work  in  a  school. 

For  variety,  after  one  or  two  heads  have  been  made,  the  \m\n\s  can  at- 
tempt the  Barye  casts  (page  .213)-  These  arc  used  in  all  my  schools.  They 
are  perhajjs  the  most  perfect  examples  of  beautifully  modeled  animal  forms 
that  can  be  procured.  There  is  a  great  variety,  and  all  of  them  seem  to 
interest  the  children,  main  pupils  being  able  to  duplicate  even  the  most 
elaborate  of  them. 


250 


Modelings 


Illustration  507 


Modelinsr  from  Birds 

The  panel  below  is  a  model  in 
clay  from  the  rc:il  bird  shown  at 
the  left.  The  panel  w;is  made  by 
,1  pupil  of  the  grammar  grade,  who 
]i:id  had  more  training"  than  the 
juipil  that  modeled  the  bird  illus- 
trated  on  pag-c  207,  and  we  there- 
fore have  here  a  better  product. 
This  panel  is  about  16  inches  long-. 
The  pupil  has  had  only  two  hours 
a  week  in  the  I*ublic  Industrial 
Art  School  for  drawing,  modeling 
and  carving.  It  must  be  con- 
stantly remembered  that  these 
three  branches  of  work  are  taken 
in  rotation  by  all  pupils.  Excel- 
lent as  is  the  training  afforded  by 
modeling  in  clay,  this  training  is 
still  better  when  combined  with 
appropriate  exercises  in  drawing, 
designing,  car\'ing  and  wood  con- 
struction. 


The   Real  Bird 

The  Animal  Forms. — The  ped- 
estal or  plinth  is  usually  made  first,  and 
then  a  rough  form  about  the  size  of 
the  body  is  put  in  the  required  position 
by  a  very  solid  prop  under  the  abdo- 
men. Let  this  prop  be  thick  and 
substantial.  It  does  not  matter  if  it 
fills  the  ^\hole  space  under  the  bodv,  in 
the  beginning.  The  first  day  the  form 
can  only  be  very  roughly  built  up.  mak- 
ing a  kind  of  core.  After  the  second 
day,  this  clay  will  be  found  to  be  much  more  solid.  It  shrinks  and 
hardens    so   that   about    the    second    or   third    day    it    is    quite    substantial, 


The  Model  in  Clay 


Animal  Forms  25t 

and  clay  can  readily  he  modeled  onto  this  core,  making  tlic  lonn 
the  required  size  and  putting  the  legs  in  the  required  position.  Every 
dav  the  clay  will  shrink.  If  a  model  is  to  be  made  of  the  same  size 
as  the  original  from  \\hich  it  is  copied,  it  must  be  started  a  little  larger. 
The  shrinkage  is  about  one  inch  in  eight.  Remember,  the  clay  shrinks 
while  the  form  is  being  made  till  it  is  cpiite  dry,  and  then  it  shrinks  again 
when  it  is  fired  at  the  pottery  and  turned  into  stone.  See  Plate  Thirteen, 
on  page  186. 

Do  not  let  tlie  core  dry  too  much.  It  must  be  only  a  little  harder 
than  the  clay  that  is  added  to  it.  If  it  is  too  hard,  the  clay  will  shrink  un- 
evenly and  cracks  will  result.  If  the  core,  or  the  form  in  the  rough,  is 
moistened  too  much  when  it  is  put  away,  it  is  apt  to  fall  down.  Nothing 
but  experience  will  teach  the  proper  manipulation.  Of  the  two  states,  it 
is  better  to  keep  the  clay  a  little  too  hard  than  too  soft.  As  the  model 
approaches  completion,  it  should  be  allowed  to  become  harder,  and  the 
props  or  supports  under  the  body  can  be  gradually  cut  away.  It  is  a  little 
difficult  to  get  a  large  model  to  shrink  evenly  all  over,  but  after  two  or  three 
attempts  on  forms  that  are  not  too  difficult,  like  the  animals  that  are  sitting 
on  their  hind  quarters,  it  will  l)e  found  (piite  easy  to  model  the  more  com- 
plex forms  that  have  a  number  of  supjiorts.  If  the  props  are  cut  away  too 
soon,  and  before  the  clay  is  stiff  enough  to  support  its  weight,  disaster  will 

Illustrations  308-309 


Modeled  by  Orainmnr  Grude  I'upits 


result.  The  remedy,  if  the  forms  fall  down,  is  to  build  tiiem  nj)  again  with 
new  props,  being  sure  that  the  broken  surfaces  have  been  made  wet.  so  tliat 
they  will  stick  together.       This  fre(|ucntly  happens  even  to  good  workers. 


252  Modeling: 

For  all  of  I  he  small  forms  illustrated  in  our  ordinary  class  work,  it  is  bet- 
ter that  the  pupils  should  make  their  models  without  any  interior  supports, 
that  is.  without  pieces  of  wood,  or  of  lead  pipe,  or  of  iron  and  wire.  \\'e  prefer 
to  omit  these  so  that  the  clay  models  can  be  fired  at  the  pottery  and  the 
child  can  keep  his  original  work, — his  model  when  fired  showing  every 
tool  mark  and  being  very  durable  and  strong.  This  is  much  better  than 
to  have  a  cast  of  the  model  made,  which  is  done  in  a  great  many  schools. 
In  our  art  school  over  900  pupils  model  each  winter,  and  it  would  l)e 
very  expensive  to  cast  all  their  models.  The  children  get  a  great  deal 
more  skill  in  being  able  to  build  up  their  forms  with  such  solidity.  It  re- 
quires more  skill  to  keep  the  clay  of  a  regular  consistency,  so  that  it  will 
shrink  e\enl\-  without  falling  down.  Of  course,  if  a  plaster  cast  only  is  de- 
sired, supports  can  be  used  inside,  or  lead  jjipe  can  be  bent  into  the  required 
shape.  This  makes  it  more  easy  to  model  the  forms.  A  plaster  cast,  how- 
ever, breaks  very  readily,  chips  easih',  antl,  if  handled  very  often,  looks  quite 
dirty  in  a  short  time.  I  recommend  for  school  purposes  keeping  and  firing 
the  original  models. 

Many  choice  forms  suitable  for  modeling  can  be  found  in  the  pictures 
of  the  carving  department.  All  the  conventional  forms  of  the  different 
styles  make  suitable  subjects  for  modeling. 

Before  dolphins,  grif?ins,  grotesques  and  other  complex  forms  are 
carved.  the\-  should  be  modeled. 

cModeling  Natural  Forms.  — It  is  only  possible  in  a  book  of  this  char- 
acter to  give  suggestions  for  work  on  a  few  subjects.  As  many  natural 
forms  as  possible  should  be  studied.  When  I  speak  fully  and  at  length 
about  shells  or  fish,  it  must  not  be  understood  that  I  mean  only  those  forms. 
Birds,  crabs,  and  animals  of  various  kinds  should  be  studied  in  the  same  way. 
My  idea  is  simply  to  suggest  suita1)le  forms  and  ways. 

Each  year  we  find  it  feasible  to  try  new  subjects  before  thought  not 
attainable  in  the  school  rooms.  Shells  and  fish.  InitterBies  and  birds,  have 
been  seldom  used  by  large  numbers,  as  they  are  now  used  for  some  of  our 
classes.  I  find  them  durable  and  lasting  to  a  remarkable  degree.  Stuffed 
birds  in  the  studio,  that  have  been  roughly  handled  for  18  years  b\-  private 
pupils,  are  still  fit  for  use.    The  colors  especially  seem  to  be  (|uite  permanent. 

The  fish  forms  illustrated  in  Book  Two,  beginning  on  page  143.  are  all 
used  for  models  in  the  art  schools,  with  manv  others.     Thev  are  mounted  on 


Animal  Forms 


253 


panels  of  wood  and  are  very  durable.     They  arc  used  in  tlie  niodelin<^  room 
as  much  as  in  the  drawing  room. 

Modeling  the  tish  in  clay  seems  to  make  a  very  emluring  impression 
upon  the  mind.     The  children  arc  really  fascinated,  for  the  time  being,  with 

Illustration  310 


.M...ltliiu'    l'"ii.h   1-Mriil~ 
Ucal  inoiintcd  A>h  are  used  as  inmlt-N.     Bird.,    fi>li,  luittcrllk-s,  iliclN,  etc..  .in-  hIm.  kcpl  for  kcihtuI  u«c  in  Ihc 
dniwinK,  m.Ktclinit  .ind  caninK  r<Kiin»,  a«  well  m  c:i>1»  of  v:iri..uH  irl  .iiul  iialur.  l.irin..    Conviiili..n;il  foriiK  nrc 
»l«o  m:i<lr,  cinlMHiyinK  h»h  foniin,  »uch  an  ilolphini,  Krotc«|ui»,  iti. 


the  Strange  and  .sometimes  beautiful  forms  and  colors.  Ihe  ;,(.v/'inj.';/')!  ;s  m 
the  natural  forms,  as  it  should  be.  and  the  mere  contemplation  of  the  forms 
seems  to  iiilliuiuc  the  pupils  to  action,      it  is  insiiiring  to  the  true  teacher  to 


254  Modelingf 

realize  the  moving  force  and  power  of  nature.  Bring  something  into  the 
class  room  like  a  new  bird  form,  or  fish  form,  and  all  of  the  children  follow 
it  with  their  eyes,  which  seem  to  almost  stick  out;  there  is  no  lack  of  atten- 
tion here,  the  magnetic  influence  is  at  work,  the  divine  energy  is  flowing. 
We  should  flow  with  it  instead  of  trying  to  thwart  it,  as  is  too  often  done. 
This  magnetic  and  energizing  power  of  nature  has  a  splendid  influence  on 
the  physical,  mental  and  moral  development  of  the  young.  It  also  fills  the 
children  with  interest,  imbues  them  with  \igor,  inspires  them  to  think  and 
work,  while  at  the  same  time  giving  them  an  appreciation  of  beauty  that 
adds  vastly  to  the  ability  of  the  young  to  enjoy  life.*  These  are  certainly 
most  desirable  attributes  to  develop  in  youth,  for  whatever  one's  vocation 
may  be,  the  individual  should  be  the  better  for  this  training.  It  is  thus  dis- 
tinctly practical,  and  commends  itself  to  the  most  materially  inclined,  as 
well  as  satisfying  the  more  ethical  aspirations  of  our  nature.  "The  emotion 
accompan}'ing  every  generous  act  adds  an  atom  to  the  fabric  of  the  ideal 
man."  By  working  direct  from  l)eautiful  natural  forms  we  unite  the  emo- 
tion with  the  action,  and  thus  still  more  thoroughly  educate. 

The  tile  is  first  made,  as  in  Illus.  310,  and  then  the  fish  is  built  up  piece 
by  piece,  taking  care  to  keep  about  the  general  proportion.  Then  the  tool 
is  used  to  get  the  surface  and  fine  curves.  When  the  bulk  of  the  body  is 
about  right  in  proportion,  then  the  spines,  fins,  eyes,  etc.,  can  be  added  and 
the  details  made  upon  them,  the  scales  usually  being  the  last  thing  repre- 
sented.    Fish  can  be  readily  cast  in  plaster,  and  are  very  easy  forms  to  begin 


*"Be:uity  is  not  a  luxury,  us  some  seem  to  believe.  It  is  not  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  few  but  the  conunon 
heritage  ot  the  many.  The  rich  cannot  monopolize  it,  and  persons  of  taste  cannot  appropriate  it  to  themselves.  There 
is  in  every  human  breast  a  sense  of  responsiveness  to  the  beauty  ot  the  external  world,  and  the  ditference  is  only  in 
the  decree  to  which  that  sense  is  developed  and  cultivated.  It  is  confined  to  no  class,  to  no  age,  to  no  stage  ot  civiliza- 
tion.   It  is  an  universal  hunger,  and  its  cravings  demand  satisfaction  as  urgently  in  the  cabin  as  on  the  throne. 

And  yet  this  sense  of  beauty  is  too  often  repressed  and  crushed  instead  of  being  nourished  and  educated  as  it 
deserves.  Much  happiness  is  thus  lost  out  of  lite,  for  the  sense  of  beauty,  wiselyadministered  to,  is  a  wcllspring  of 
pleasure.  It  is  even  more  than  this.  It  is  a  fountain  ot  lite  itselt.  It  adds  to  its  fullness  and  energy,  its  refinement 
and  delicacy,  its  sweetness  and  purity.  The  life  from  which  it  is  ungraciously  pushed  out  grows  inevitably  harder 
and  rougher,  coarser  and  colder,  and  its  inlluence  over  other  minds  deterioriates  in  the  same  way. 

"How  shall  this  sense  of  beauty  be  s.ived  and  educated,  for  rich  and  poor,  for  old  and  young?  One  way  is  bj- 
contact  with  its  presence.  Another  and  still  surer  means  of  cultivating  the  sense  of  beauty  among  us  is  to  accustom 
ourselves  to  create  it  in  daily  life.    This  is  a  part  of  education  and  of  self-culturc  that  is  sadly  neglected. 

"Then  there  is  the  beauty  of  truth  and  of  character.  Perhaps  we  dwell  too  much  upon  the  dry  and  stern  aspect  of 
duty  and  forget  to  exhibit  or  to  admire  the  beauty  ot  goodness.  But  as  last  as  duty,  instead  of  a  sacrifice,  becomes  a 
desire,  and  the  love  of  riglitconsness  bec.nmes  the  ruling  motive,  does  the  character  become  noble,  admirable  ano 
beautiful.  So  all  beauty  is  bound  together  and  leads  up  from  the  smallest  things  of  life  to  the  greatest;  from  th; 
most  materi.-ll  to  the  most  spiritual ;  from  the  simplest  and  humblest  to  the  most  exalted."— [Anonymous. 


Animal  Forms 


255 


upon  in  doing-  plaster  casting.     Tlie  forms  are  comparatively  simple  and 
can  he  removed  from  the  mokl  without  difticulty. 

This  work  of  modeling  looks  simple,  and  it  is  easy  when  you  know  how. 
That  is  to  be  learned  by  actually  modeling,  rather  than  by  reading  about  it. 
The  suggestions  given  in  these  pages  will  help,  but  you  must  do  the  work 
to  realize  its  educational  power.  The  more  you  model,  the  more  facility 
and  accuracy  you  will  oljtain.  and  the  more  you  will  be  fascinated  with  this 
mode  of  thought  expression. 


liriffin.  Original  DcsIkh 
Modeled  by  a  R.  C.  high  school  Ihiv,  (nr  architectural  u«c. 


>- 


a. 


(>ri^ii);il  I>cbt)xn   Modeled  in  Wax 
The  dcsi^rn  is  afterwards  cast  in  plasti-r  ami  ilic  \v:i\  hm-.I  ;il' 


CHAPTER  VII 

Wax  Modeling 


CT^  HE  DESIGNS  SHOWN  IN  THE  PLATE  on  the  cnpuMtc  pji-c 
X  are  modeled  in  wax,  and  were  made  by  grammar  grade  inipils. 

They  are  either  their  original  patterns  or  heads,  antitpie  fqrnis  and 
bird  forms  which  they  have  copied.  Eor  convenience,  boards  8x14  inches 
are  used  to  model  on,  as  illustrated  above.  The  pupil  first  makes  a  drawing 
or  sketch  in  chalk  on  the  board.  When  this  is  satisfactory  it  is  then  lined  in 
with  the  pencil. 

The  wax  is  much  stiffer  tlian  ordinary  clay.  It  is  sometimes  also  quite 
sticky  and  not  so  pleasant  to  use  as  clay.  We  use  it  simply  be- 
cause it  can  be  kept  an  indefinite  time,  and  very  fnic  complex  pieces  of  work 
requiring  a  long  period  of  time  can  be  ke])t  from  month  to  month  on  shelves 
without  their  having  to  be  moistened,  as  is  the  ca.se  with  clay.  Unless  the 
clay  models  are  wet  at  frequent  intervals  they  dry  u])  and  crack  and  are  of 
course  spoiled.  With  the  wa.x  a  piece  of  work  can  be  labored  ujiou  for 
months  if  necessary.  Real  modeling  wax  is  worth  about  $1  a  pf)und,  the 
best  kind.  There  are  several  very  good  substitutes,  however,  on  the  mar- 
ket under  several  names,  which  are  quite  as  good  for  general  use.  Com- 
position clav  is  uscil  frequently,  costing  about  30  cents  a  pound.  The 
'■  '  '        (=57) 


258 


Modeling 


same  tools  are  used  as  in  clay  modeling,  and  if  the  wax  is  a  little  sticky  it 
is  advisable  to  have  a  cup  of  water  to  moisten  the  tools  and  fingers  occa- 
sionally. 

\\'ood  of  a  little  roughness  in  texture  is  the  best  to  model  upon.      Wax 
must  be  rubbed  into  the  surface  so  that  it  will  stick  firmly.       On  this  sur- 
face the    form    can  be  l)uilt 
Illustration  313  ■    ,       ,1  1      •       1       1 

up  mto  the  desired  .shape, 
planing  off  with  the  tool 
and  forming  it  as  described 
in  the  clay  modeling.  Was. 
is  used  for  modeling  very 
fine  forms  to  be  cast  in 
metal  and  other  materials. 
Medals  and  coins  are  \isu- 
ally  modeled  in  wax.  \^ery 
fine  and  beautiful  work  can 
be  made  with  small  tools. 
A  common  slate  with  a 
wooden  rim  is  a  useful  sur- 
face to  model  upon. 

It  is  advisable  to  allow 
some  of  the  advanced  pupils 
in  each  class  at  intervals  to 
work  in  wax.  For  general 
purposes,  however,  it  is  not 
so  good  as  clay.  Do  not 
allow  pupils  to  make  very  fine  work  all  the  time.  Let  them  occasionally 
make  a  large,  bold  piece  for  contrast.  Wax  can  be  purchased  in  a  number 
of  colors,— bronze-green,  Ijrown,  red,  gray.  For  general  purposes  gray  is 
best.  Bronze-green  is  very  suitaljle  for  figure  work,  having  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  a  bronze  when  finished. 

Wax  or  composition  clay  is  also  more  portalile  than  common  clay  and 
has  been  used  with  success  in  several  of  my  summer  schools.  Models  of 
animals,  figures,  designs,  can  be  boxed  and  carried  with  safety  when  modeled 
in  wax,  \\hen  a  clay  model  would  be  broken.  The  clay  when  dry  is  very 
brittle,  and  any  sudden  jar  or  shock  will  Ijreak  large  and  heavy  work  unless 


Original  Panel  in  Wax 

The  form  is  modeled  in  an  upright  position  by  being  clamped 
to  a  board.  The  same  form  with  different  lighting  is  shown  oppo- 
site. Byvicwingthe  model  with  the  light  and  shade  changed  it 
can  be  improved.     It  is  important  to  get  good  light  and  shade. 


Wax  Modeling 


259 


it  is  fired.  For  this  reason  wax  is  a  good  siiljstitute.  When  ilic  wax  has 
heen  used  many  times  and  Ijecomes  discolored  or  dirty,  it  may  lie  cleaned 
by  melting  it. 

The  plate  or  designs  maitc  by  grammar  grade  chiMron.  page  j-,(>.  has 
been  taken  from  casts  made  from  the  wax  models  and  then  the  wax  is  used 

lllustratiun  311 


Ml'. I.  i.n-   ,1    I  ;.ii|.tiiii   1  .    \\  .i\ 
The  Torni  can  he  rapidly  chna(rfr(l  ^nd  iinprovcd  wht-n  viewed  in  a  difTcrrnt  licht.    l.'»c  the  finders 
and  thutnb  as  a  tool,  as  illustrated  in  the  aluive  picture,  us  much  as  poKftihle.     Fine  cur\'es  aiul  swinf;in^ 
lines  can  be  made  this  way. 

over  again  many  times.     Simple  designs  of  this  character  can  be  readily  cast 
l)y  the  pupils  or  teacher  in  the  following  maimer  : 

When  the  wax  pattern  is  rmished.  buiUl  a  wall  of  clay  ari>ninl  the  edge 
of  the  design  about  one  incii  high.  This  wall,  or  fence,  of  clay,  must  entirely 
inclose  the  design  with  de.sired  margin.  Next  take  a  tin  vessel  and  put  in 
enough  water  to  more  than  fill  the  inclosed  space.  In  this  water  sprinkle 
the  dry  plaster  with  a  large  injn  sptjon,  stirring  it  slowly  unlil  alnmt  the  con- 
sistency of  thin  cream.     When  in  this  state.  i)our  over  the  wax  model,  taking 


260 


Modelingf 


care  to  see  that  the  liquid  fills  all  the  pattern  and  space  without  any  large 
bubbles;  this  will  soon  set  and  harden,  and  should  be  about  one  inch  thick. 
The  clay  rim  can  then  be  removed,  the  plaster  tile  lifted  from  the  board,  and 
it  will  lie  found  to  retain  the  form  of  the  wax  model.  \\'hen  the  plaster 
mold  is  hard,  the  wax  can  be  pulled  out,  leaving-  the  exact  shape  of  the 
model  reversed  in  the  plaster.     This  is  the  mold. 

From  this  mold  another  cast  may  be  made  that  will  repeat  the  form  of 
the  wax  model.  To  do  this,  a  clay  wall  must  be  built  around  the  mold, 
and  the  surface  and  all  parts  of  the  impression  upon  it  must  be  brushed  with 
sweet  oil;  this  prevents  the  new  plaster,  when  poured  in.  from  sticking  to 
the  mold.  The  liquid  plaster  can  now  be  poured  in.  \\'hen  it  is  hard  the 
cast  can  be  separated  from  the  mold  liy  tapping  it  gently  or  inserting  a 
blunt  knife  as  a  lever.  If  successfully  done,  the  cast  should  be  a  complete 
copy  of  the  wax  model. 

Of  course  this  can  only  be  done  with  flat  forms  that  do  not  project  on 
the  ^ges  to  prevent  the  mold  and 
cast  from  separating.  If  any  edge  is 
unilercut,  it  must  be  filletl  with  wax, 
to  insure  good  results.  This  is  a  good 
way  to  make  some  of  the  class  work 
permanent  and  also  interests  the  chil- 
dren. Sometimes  the  mold  is  slight- 
ly colored  b}-  mixing  red  clay  or 
other  coloring  matter  with  the  plaster 
liefore  it  sets. 


••J?^.<^ 


Enlarging  Animal  Forms 
These  low  relief  forms  arc  modeled  in  wax  from  small  casts. 


BOOK  FOUR 

Wood  Carving 


"The  haml,  dL-stincil  to  In-coine  the  instru- 
ment f'lr  pcrffclin^  the  other  si-nscs,  iind  fnr. 
dcvclopinj;  the  cntlnwrnents  nf  the  mind  itstlt, 
is,  in  the  infant,  iihsoluiely  powerless." — ["The 
Hand,"  Sir  Charles  Bell,  K.  G.  II.,  F.  K.  S. 


"Awkwardness  of  limb  nnd  inability  to  ukc 
the  finders  deniy,  continually  entail  small  dis 
asters  and  occasionally  ({real  ones;  while  ex 
pcrtness  frequently  contes  in  aid  of  welfare, 
cither  ot  self  or  others.  One  who  has  been  well 
practiced  in  the  use  of  hi^  senses  and  Ills  mus 
cles,  is  less  likely  than  the  uopracticed  to  meet 
with  accidents;  and  when  accidents  iKCur,  i!> 
-•ure  tt)  he  more  eftUlent  in  rectifyinj;  mischiefs 
Were  it  not  that  the  obvious  truth  is  it^norcd, 
it  would  be  absurd  to  point  out  that,  since 
limbs  and  senseii  cxtiit  to  the  end  of  adjustin^r 
the  actions  t«)  surroundint;  objects  and  move- 
ments, it  is  the  business  of  everyone  to  jjain 
bkill  in  the  performance  ol  s»ich  actions."— 
[Spencer.  I'rincipleh  of  Ethic*,  paKC5ij. 


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Uv-sig^ntd  .iiKl  C.mtAl  by  lli^'h  School  l*upil 


CHAPTER  I 

Tcx)Is  for  Wood  Carvingf 
Design  in  Wood  " 


J"  y\TOOD  CAR\'IXG  is  one  of  tlu-  most  l)eautifiil  of  arts.  It  rf(|iiires 

f^w'^^         a  real    knowledge    of    fcirni.    tlierefore    its    educational    value 

lies  in  enabling  pupils  to  rccei\e  fixed  or  permanent  imi)res- 

sions.     Just  as  i)ui)ils  acquire  dexterity  and  skill  in  drawing  on  blackboard 

or  paper,  and  just  as  they  gain  similar  dexterity  and  skill  in  soft  clay,  so  I 

wish  them  also  to  obtain  dexterity  in  tough  wood. 

The  tools  re(|uirc<l  in  carsing  arc  very  simple.  .\  few  gouges  an  1 
chisels  and  a  mallet,  with  clamps  to  hold  the  work  on  the  table  or  bench, 
will  be  enough.  In  wood  carving,  as  in  carving  in  marble  or  other  sione. 
few  tools  are  needed:  the  fewer  the  tools  used,  the  better  the  workman.       .\ 


•The  carving  and  timilar  wnrk  Illuslratrd  in  lhi>  chapirr  arc  all  ilnni-  l-y  tin-  rliililrtn  ..I  llii  \.irinn«  itr.iilo. 


264 


Wood  Carving 


Illustration  316 


mallet  and  a  few  chisels  are  the  only  toolsused  in  sculptured  work,  and  as  far 
l)ack  as  we  can  trace  in  history  the  tools ajjpear  to  have  been  similar  in  shape. 
On  the  hack  of  the  \'eniis  of  Milo  roiif^h  tool  niarks  may  be  seen  that  in- 
dicate to  us  the  kind  of  edge  and  size  of  chisel  used  in  tliat  period  of  the 
greatest  Greek  art. 

I  he  Tools. — In  carving,  the  simpler  the  chisels  and  the  fewer  in  num- 
ber that  are  used  the  better  the 
result.  Some  carvers  have 
rows  of  50,  60  or  70  different 
chisels,  but  these  are  usually 
not  very  good  carvers.  .Again 
some  of  the  finest  carvers  will 
do  all  their  work  in  wood, 
even  the  most  intricate  and 
most  elaborate  sctdpture  work, 
with  perhaps  no  more  than 
half  a  dozen.  My  sets  for  or- 
dinary school  purposes  usu- 
ually  consist  of  about  10  tools. 
It  is  far  better  to  become  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  all  the 
capacities  of  a  few  tools  than  to  handle  a  great  variety. 

Age  at  Which  to  Ledrn, — As  soon  as  children  are  big  enough 
to  swing  their  elbows  freely  above  the  table  or  bench,  they  are  ready  for 
carving.  Carving  is  work;  not  hard  work,  Ijut  work  that  compels  the  ex- 
ercise of  a  certain  amount  of  energy.  Some  women  are  deterred  from 
carving  because  they  think  it  is  hard,  and  requires  the  exercise  of  main 
strength  continuall}-.  This  is  not  so.  Like  marble  carving,  wood  carving 
is  re-enforced  b\"  the  use  of  the  mallet.  If  the  chisel  or  gouge  cannot  be 
readily  pushed  through  the  wood,  the  mallet  is  used,  and  any  one  who  has 
strength  enough  to  drive  a  tack  can  cut  the  hardest  wood.  Children  of 
eight  or  nine,  therefore,  unlesstheyareconstitutionally  defective  or  very  weak, 
are  quite  large  enough  and  strong  enough  to  carve,  and  usually  enter  into  it 
with  a  great  deal  of  energy  and  joy.  It  is  fun  to  them  to  see  the  chips  fly, 
and  the}-  find  it  especially  attractive  wdien  they  discover  that  from  the  be- 
ginning thev  can  make  fit  and  beautiful  forms, — rather  than  the  amateurish 


Clamps  and  Mullet  for  Wood  Car 


Tools  for  Wood  Carving 


265 


things  used  in  some  schools,   where   tlie   cliildren    spend  their  energies  on 
feeljle  imitative  constructions  in  wood. 

Just  as  our  children  from  the  beginning  are  fit  to  draw  forms  of  the 
best  style,  embodying  beauty  and  grace;  and  just  as  in  modeling  they  can 
make  fine  forms  of  the  best  periods,  so  in  wood  we  find  it  to  be  of  ad- 
vantage that  they  should  from  the  beginning  do  the  best  class  of  work  pos- 
sible, and  become  familiar  with  the  forms  best  suited  for  this  material.  It 
does  not  follow  that  because  a  mind  is  young,  it  is  less  bright  and  clear  in 
perceiving  beautiful  and  true  things.  It  is  just  as  wrong  to  give  children 
feeble,  aimless  forms  to  model  and  carve  because  they  are  young,  as  it  is  to 
utter  baby  talk  to  them  when  we  wish  them  to  speak  clearly  and  to  enunciate 
properly. 

The    Wood  to    Use, — Do  not  let  the  pupils  u.se  soft  wood  at  first, — 
such    as    pine    or    poplar.       This    advice,    it    is    true,    is    opposed    to    the 

Illustration  317 


Set  ol  Carviiiff  TooU 

Including  tmall  sharpcnlne  »tonc.    Wiih  thU  simple  ami  im\|"nMM- 
tct  of  tools  all  onlinary  carvini;  can  be  done. 


usual  practice  in  schools.  Usually  the  pupils  are  allowed  to  chip  blocks  of 
soft  pine  or  poplar.  This  is  a  mistake.  From  the  very  beginning  our  pupils, 
as  can  l)e  seen  by  the  illustrations,  make  in  hard  wood  panels  fit  to  be 
utilized.      Mv  reason  for  using  hard  wood  is  that  the  children  from  the  first 


266  Wood  Carvingf 

may  gel  accustomed  to  the  texture  in  ordinary  use;  most  carving  Ijeing 
done  in  oak  and  maliogan_\-.  clierry  and  walnut,  while  only  occasionally  are 
soft  woods  employed.  The  best  and  the  cheapest  wood  for  school  pur- 
poses is  oak.  It  is  a  Httle  tough  in  texture,  and  otTers  just  enough  re- 
sistance to  prevent  it  splintering  and  cutting  too  freely.  If  you  give  a  be- 
ginner a  piece  of  very  soft  wood,  it  splinters  so  readily  that  when  attacked 
without  skill,  the  forms  are  soon  spoiled.  With  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  on  the 
contrar}-,  a  great  deal  of  cutting  can  be  done  without  splintering  the  work. 
Of  course  it  requires  more  labor,  but  the  product  is  better, — and  there  is 
not  so  much  disappointment.  The  grain  being  of  firm  consistency,  it  does 
not  give  way  in  unexpected  places,  as  it  so  often  does  in  the  soft  wood. 

Designing  the  Form  to  Carve. — The  pupils  should  from  the  start 
make  a  design  that  will  be  of  use  and  value.  The  first  panel  can  embody 
the  forms  that  have  been  given  in  the  modeling.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
carve  a  series  of  panels,  each  of  which  has  a  separate  unit  on  it.  The 
units  may  be  combined  from  the  beginning,  and  a  panel  that  will  have  some 
value  and  that  can  be  used  for  some  purpose  is  the  result.  In  every  article 
printed  about  carving  heretofore,  pupils  are  recommended  to  practice  cut- 
ting on  soft  blocks  of  wood  first,  apparently  just  to  get  exercise.  They  are 
advised  to  use  tracing  paper  to  transfer  drawings  to  the  wood;  sometimes 
carbon  paper  is  recommended:  at  other  times  tracing  cloth,  or  the\  are 
taught  to  use  a  pattern  wheel, — this  is  a  wheel  with  little  spurs  on  it  that 
prick  the  outlines  through  the  pattern  into  the  wood.  Some  even  advise 
the  making  of  stencils,  the  forms  being  cut  out  in  stiiY  paper  in  order  that 
the  pupil  may  draw  around  the  edges,  and  so  produce  the  designs.  These 
are  very  erroneous  bits  of  advice,  and  such  methods  must  be  avoided 
by  the  carver  who  does  not  wish  to  be  a  feeble  amateur. 

Let  the  pupil  take  a  piece  of  chalk  and  draw  freehand  a  simple  pattern, 
— say  the  scroll  doubled.  Reserve  a  simple  band  around  the  edge  of  the 
panel  about  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  width.  Practice  making 
this  drawing  till  the  scrolls  balance  and  fit  the  space.  It  is  a  little  difficult 
to  draw  freely  on  rough  wood,  but  with  practice  it  can  be  done  readily.  Add 
a  few  crockets  if  desired,  each  added  form  making  the  carving  a  little  more 
complex.  As  soon  as  the  form  is  satisfactorily  placed,  then  with  a  soft 
lead  pencil — one  with  a  thick  lead  preferred — make  the  outline  permanent, 
drawing  the  line  heavily,  so  that  it  will  not  rub  off.       Any  good  teacher  will 


Tools  for  Wood  Carving 


267 


see  the  absurdity  of  advisinjj  cliildren  to  trace  or  to  paste  on  the  wood  or  to 
produce  by  artificial  means  a  pattern  tliat  ou^ht  to  be  produced  automat- 
ically by  the  hand  of  the  pupil.  It  is  because  from  the  very  beginning  we 
compel  our  pupils,  on  all    various   surfaces   and  in  the  different  mediums. 


Illustration  318 


Positions  ol  Hands  in  Cuning 
This  piclurr  riprrscnts  four  h.indii  Krippinu  Inols  in  various  p€>silionB.     In  cuttinK  from  rlifhl  lo  IrlX 
the  left  hand  will  usually  be  t'liiiliuL'   thi-   Kml  and  also  rvstin|;  on   the  work   to   prevent  the  tone  from 
going  too  far. 


dexterity  with  originality  of  product.  I  have  in  one  school  alone  900 
pupils  carving,  and  have  never  had  two  i)attcrns  made  exactly  alike  since  the 
to  make  the  work  freehand,  that  wc  get  the  results  we  do— uniting  hand 
school  started.        This  drawing  on   the  wm.d.   in   tlic  beginning  with   the 


268 


Wood  Carving 


Illustration  319 


■^ — .——,-,—.,..- „.,^^.„,.,^ , — «_^    proper  precaution  is  taken. 

l^^m^^TT^S^^^^^^^M.  J    ^^  °"^>'  ^^y  repeated  experie 
^<UUi. :  f '— >£^'//    Y/yJJ-'^"*'~^-'^\.f^-j  I  i     tliat  pupils  begin  to  s;rasp 


Ivy  J 


chalk  anil  then  with  the  lead  pencil,  gives  \-ery  good  practice.  It  requires 
only  a  few  minutes  to  do  it,  and  makes  the  children  feel  in  the  beginning 
that  the  work  is  their  own.  It  is  very  wrong  to  allow  pupils  to  cheat;  and 
it  is  really  a  sort  of  deception  when  they  are  allowed  to  claim  as  their  own 
work  that  which  has  been  copied  or  traced. 

The  background  can  now  be  scored  with  the  pencil  all  over.  (Illus.  319.) 
This  prevents  the  pupil  from  cutting  out  the  ornament  instead  of  the  back- 
ground,— a  mistake  w  h  i  c  h 
will  frequently  occur  unless 
proper  precaution  is  taken.  It 
experience 
the 
idea  of  form  on  flat  surface. 
Very  few  can  see  a  back- 
ground all  over  and  distin- 
guish it  readily  from  a  pattern 
on  the  background,  unless 
they  have  had  practice  in 
making  these  forms.  Even 
adults  will  frequently  cut  out 
part  of  a  background  by  mis- 
take, and  do  this  several  times  before  they  get  accustomed  to  distinguish  the 
diiterence.  It  saves  trouble,  therefore,  to  score  the  background  in  every 
case  with  beginners.     Then  very  little  work  is  spoiled. 

As  to  Graded  Work. — Illustrations  are  given  herewith  of  graded 
panels  show'ing  the  different  eleinents  of  design  separately  cut  and  ex- 
hibiting the  different  stages.  These  are  made  simply  to  illustrate  the  steps 
in  carving, — a  first,  a  second,  and  a  third  stage.  They  must  be  carefully 
studied  in  advance,  and  then  it  will  be  easier  to  make  the  first  attempt.  In 
our  schools  the  children  see  all  these  operations  going  on  at  once,  on  the 
different  panels.  They  soon  take  in  the  idea,  and  we  find  in  consequence 
that  it  is  not  essential  for  each  one  to  make  the  different  units  separately, 
but  they  can  begin  on  panels. 

A  number  of  pictures  of  panels  with  graded  exercises  have  also  been 
prepared  for  those  who  like  to  "  systematize  things."  These  forms,  how- 
ever, are  mainly  useful  for  pupils  who  have  never  had  any  practice  in  draw- 


ifiewai»<a"<  a-i»;c^t^.ir..f j<ai;agj»a''=**^tf""ACJftM»^-<«i''  v>*:'K.i«**4*»iW^"*=^«J=^*''iy?(5:tJft.WA'SCS^Ji  w      _. 


Background  Marked  Over  for  Cutting  Out 


Tools  for  Wood  Carving  269 

ingand  modeling.  All  the  pupils  in  my  schools  receive  the  drawing  and  the 
modeling  from  the  beginning,  in  rotation  with  wood  carving,  this  rendering 
it  iinnecessary  for  them  to  make  the  elementary  forms.  Usually  a  pupil  who 
can  draw  a  good  scroll,  and  who  has  modeled  the  same,  can  begin  to  produce 
it  with  the  chisel  in  the  first  lesson. 


Illustration  320 


A  Piclnri.-  Fruiic  DifiKncd  and  CarMil  b>  tJr.imiiiar  (;rnilc  rupU 


c^ 

a 

> 

;- 

•ri 

U 

^ 

•n 

-B 

o 

i: 

1^ 

b 

<j 

• 

f/-i 

</  -^ 

■u 

'< 

CL. 

o  — 

E 

i:  r 

rt 

C      JI 

X 

c:  ^ 

LU 

3 

1« 


^ 


CarvcU  by  Urainiii.ir  Urude  PupiLs 


CHAPTER  II 

Instructions  for 
Elementary  Carving; 


/  /'  >\\  TO  CARVE. — Take  a  gouge,  ami  without  removing  the  lead- 
_^  J_  l)encil  marks  from  the  panel,  gouge  a  channel  around  the  <Iesign. 
Grasp  the  tool  firmly  in  both  hands.  There  is  no  one  position  for 
holding  the  chisel  (see  Illus.  Xos  32J  to  326).  hut  in  doing  this  work,  the 
chisel  should  change  from  one  hand  to  the  other,  as  we  work  from  right  to 
left  or  the  reverse,  sometimes  one  hand  guiding  the  chisel  and  sometimes 
tlie  other,  biU  most  of  the  time  both  hands  grasping  it  tightly  and  helping 
to  guide  it. 

Cutting  tough  oak  is  splendid  discipline.  Unless  the  tool  is  hekl 
firmly,  it  is  likely  to  slip  and  cut  the  wrong  place.  The  wood  being  easy 
to  cut  with  the  grain  and  hard  to  cut  against  the  grain,  it  is  diflicult  at 
first  to  make  the  chisel  sweep  around  a  curve,  because  some  part  of  it  will 
be  hard  and  resist,  while  the  parts  of  it  that  go  with  the  grain  will  be  soft. 
A  very  few  attempts  will  enable  a  pupil  to  find  out  this  characteristic.  It 
is  one  of  the  things  that  we  can  properly  learn  only  by  experience.  .Ml  the 
speech  in  the  world  and  all  the  talk  of  a  dozen  teachers  will  not  enal)le  one 
to  feel  these  things.  If  the  tool  is  not  very  sharp,  or  if  the  wood  is  a  little 
too  hard  to  be  cut  with  a  simple  pressure  of  the  hands,  one  hand  can  hold 
the  chisel  and  the  other  drive  it,  like  a  mallet,  or  the  mallet  even  may  be 

USCfl. 

(270 


272 


Wood  Carving: 


It  is  better,  however,  in  the  beginning,  to  practice  as  much  as  possible 
bv  pushing  the  chisel  through  the  wood,  so  that  both  hands  can  get  the 
power  to  grip  the  tool  tightly,  and  at  the  same  time  to  guide  it.  Do  not  be 
too  anxious  to  remove  the  wood  cjuickly.  Endeavor  to  make  free  curves 
from  the  beginning.       It  is  perhaps  better  to  make  slight  grooves  at  first 


Illustration  322 


Wood  Carving 

This  picture  shows  method  of  clamping  work  to  the  bench,  position  of  tools  and  method  of  grasping  tools 
with  both  hands.    Various  pieces  of  work  carved  by  the  boys  are  in  the  background. 


and  then  gradually  increase  them  in  depth  as  one's  power  increases.  It 
will  be  found  very  soon  that  while  one  hand  guides  the  tool  the  other  will 
luild  it  back  as  much  as  possible.  These  movements  must  be  practiced 
continuall}-  till  the  wood  is  entirely  removed  around  the  whole  pattern. 
The  gouge  can  then  be  used  to  remove  roughly  the  rest  of  the  background, 


Instructions  for  Elementary  Carving  273 

working  the  chisel  as  freely  as  possible  and  taking  care  not  to  cut  too  deeplv 
into  the  wood.  About  one-quarter  or  three-eighths  of  an  incli  is  (juite 
enough.       Do  not  attempt  to  smooth  up  the  background  in  the  lieginning. 

Other  tools  can  now  l)c  taken  and  the  forms  can  be  cut  sharp  and  clean 
around  the  edge.  This  is  done  by  taking  a  curve  tliat  will  lit  tlic  edge,  and 
cutting  it  down  vertically  witli  a  few  taps  of  the  mallet.  Endeavor  to  make 
a  continuous  clean  cut  with  the  tool,  fitting  successive  tools  to  the  altering 
curve  of  the  outline.  Do  not  let  it  show  irregular  marks.  Do  not  try  to 
make  a  wide  cur\e  with  a  narrow-curved  tool.  I'rom  four  to  six  curves 
will  fit  almost  any  part  of  a  scroll.  Where  the  curve  is  acute,  a  chisel  of 
quite  an  acute  curve  must  be  used;  where  the  curve  is  almost  ilat,  a  tlatly 
curved  tool  is  recjuired. 

In  using  the  mallet,, the  pupil  from  the  beginning  must  get  accustomed 
to  holding  it  in  both  right  and  left  hand.  Do  not  let  the  pupils  become 
rightdianded,  that  is,  so  that  they  can  use  the  mallet  with  one  hand  only. 
A  good  carver  should  be  able  to  work  both  ways,  changing  the  mallet  from 
hand  to  hand  just  as  the  tool  is  changed  from  hand  to  hand,  accortliug  to 
direction.  Sometimes  the  entire  background  can  be  cut  out  this  way, 
using  the  tool  and  mallet.  It  is  a  matter  of  choice  to  the  individual.  .\n 
expert  carver  will  not  consider  the  line  or  the  drawing,  but  from  the  begin- 
ning will  sweep  out  with  a  large,  deep  gouge  as  much  of  the  l)ackgroun(l 
as  possible,  afterward  shaping  the  different  parts  of  the  design.  As  soon 
as  the  whole  design  stands  u])  clean  and  well  drawn,  and  as  soon  as  all  the 
background  has  been  removed  from  every  part,  the  i)U])il  must  begin  to 
model  the  raised  part. 

Carving  the  Raised  Surface. — This  is  the  most  ditVicult  part  of  the 
carving,  and  to  be  done  skillfully  requires  that  the  pupils  should  feel  form 
in  the  wood  with  the  chisel,  just  as  we  feel  it  in  the  clay.  Select  the  gouge 
according  to  the  curve  required  on  the  scroll.  N'ext  carefully  draw  a  line 
on  the  design  ref)resenting  the  modeled  edge,  or  the  edge  that  stands  up. 
Then  take  the  gouge  and  scoop  out  the  inside  curve  around  each  scroll  to 
this  line.  Do  a  little  at  a  time,  gradually  letting  the  chip  grow  smaller  as 
we  come  to  the  end  of  the  .sweep.  Usually  we  carve  this  out  about  half 
the  depth  of  the  wood,  just  as  we  have  in  the  past  modeletl  the  form.  Prac- 
tice swinging  the  chisel  in  both  bands  around  the  curve,  making  clean, 
sharp  cuts,  the  pressure  being  put  on  the  chisel  with  one  hand,  wliile  i)eing 


274 


Wood  Carvingf 


guided  and  helc 


)\-  llie  other.  Most  of  the  time  in  doing  this  work  one 
wrist  will  rest  firmly  on  the  work.  This  support  gives  a  kind  of  center  and 
leverage  that  enables  one  to  cut  around  the  curves  without  much  difficulty, 


Illustration  323 


I,  V  A  rf,  ,1..  m 


Wood  Carving 

Two  other  positions  of  holding  tools.     Variety  of  carved  panels  in  the  backgronnd.    These  hoys  are  carv- 
ing- i>()rli'>iis  i)t"  :i  very  handsome  piece  of  furniture. 


each  hand  licl])ing,  one  holding  liack  and  the  other  pushing.        Curve  out 
as  carefully  as  j^iossible  the  inside  of  each  scroll. 

Then  take  a  chisel  that  is  almost  fiat  and  bevel  ofi'  the  outer  edge.  This 
is  a  little  more  difficult  and  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  chip  or  break  the 
modeled  edge.  The  inside  curve  of  each  crocivet  must  be  scooped  out  and 
the  outer  edge  beveled  with  a  nearly  tkit  chisel.  Take  care  of  the  tips  of 
the  crockets.  Do  not  under-cut  them  so  that  they  chip  oft'.  It  will  not 
matter  if  some  of  the  crockets  arc  broken  in  the  liesfinning.       Thev  can  be 


Instructions  for  Elementary  Carving  275 

made  smaller,  and,  if  they  break  again,  cut  still  smaller,  or  if  necessarv  the 
design  can  be  rendered  without  them.  Because  one  crocket  is  spoile>l,  do 
not  cut  off  all  the  other  crockets.  Practice  on  those  al.so.  It  is  very  fool- 
ish to  see  some  pupils,  because  they  have  spoiled  or  cut  off  by  mistake  one 
crocket,  cut  off  all  the  others.  Practice  making  each  crocket,  trying  to 
keep  it  sharp  and  to  ijet  the  curved  edge  and  the  bevel  edge  with  facility. 

Power  in  the  Hand.  — Two  or  three  panels  must  be  carved  before 
one  becomes  familiar  with  the  grain  of  the  wood.  In  cutting  around  a  single 
scroll,  the  direction  of  the  chisel  must  usually  be  changed  four  times  on 
account  of  the  grain.  This  seems  a  little  troublesome  at  the 
start  and  puzzles  a  beginner,  bui  by  the  time  we  have  cut  half  a  dozen 
scrolls,  the  work  l)egins  to  grow  automatic.  We  no  longer  have  to  think 
about  it,  and  attention  can  be  confined  to  the  shape  which  we  are  carving, 
the  hands  almost  unconsciously  having  become  aware  of  the  texture  of  the 
wood  in  the  different  positions.  This  is  the  power  that  we  wish  to  get,  and 
pupils  must  be  nia<le  to  struggle  with  the  wood  till  they  reach  this  stage.  It 
is  an  uncomfortable  exi)erience  to  pass  through,  and  the  first  scroll  may 
take  perhaps  one.  two,  or  three  hours  to  cut,  when  later,  after  facility  is 
gained,  it  can  be  dune  in  perhaps  fifteen  minutes. 

Encourage  the  Pupil.  — Remember,  the  wt>od  is  tough  and  unyield- 
ing. The  piiijils  must  i)e  encouraged  They  must  be  told  what  to  expect. 
Unless  a  pupil  can  see  an  expert  cut  the  wood,  the  experience  they  receive  in 
the  beginning  of  lack  of  power  is  very  depressing.  But  the  wood  will  answer 
to  every  touch  like  jilastic  wax  when  once  the  capacity  to  carve  is  acquiretl. 
Therefore,  again  I  say,  encourage  the  pupils  at  this  stage.  Because  oc- 
casionally a  panel  is  spoiled,  that  is  no  reason  why  a  pupil  should  be  spoiled. 
The  first  stages  of  a  carved  panel  are  also  very  depressing  to  look  at.  It 
is  the  last  few  touches,  the  smoothing  touches  and  the  stamping  of  the 
background  that  make  the  essential  difference.  Scores  of  times  in  my  ex- 
perience I  have  found  that  the  pupils  who  are  most  stui)id  in  the  be- 
ginning, the  ones  who  make  the  most  awkward  attempts,  wlio  seem  to  be 
all  thumbs  and  desjiair,  are  the  ones  who  develop  into  skilled  workers. 

Do  not,  then,  because  the  wood  is  iiard  and  brittle  and  notched,  ami  be- 
cause .struggling  and  strength  and  reliance  are  recpiired,  let  the  pupils  fail 
to  use  these  qualities.  I  consitler  that  our  children  have  learned  a  most 
valuable   lesson    when   thev   become   able    to    make  a  piece  of  tough  wood 


276 


Wood  Carvingf 


assuir.e  the  desired  l)eautiful  shape.  In  reaching  this  stage  they  have  had  to 
exercise  their  patience,  they  have  had  to  strugg'.e  with  both  hands  and 
arms:  thev  lia\e  hatl  to  compel  tlieir  liands  to  obey  their  minds;  and  to  do 

Illustration  324 


Wood  C;iiviiii_^ — l^ositioii  in  .Malletiiig 
Work  of  pupils  should  be  displayed  arouud  the  chiss  rooms,  as  illustrated. 


this,  they  have  had  to  bring  into  apphcation  a  knowledge  of  form  and  a 
care  and  precision  that  make  them  eml)ody  these  qualities.  They  must  not 
do  all  this  once  or  a  few  times  only,  but  they  must  form  the  habit  till  it 
becomes  automatic. 

The  Value  of  Ca/bmg.  — I  regard  carving  as  one  of  the  best  means, 
with  modeling,  to  impress  permanently  and  quickly  fundamental  forms, 
fixed  concepts  of  form,  in  the  minds  of  the  children.  It  is  comparatively 
easy  to  swing  forms  of  grace  and  beauty  on  a  blackboard  or  on  a  piece  of 
paper.     There   is   very   little    resistance    ottered   to    the    hand.     But  is  is  a 


Instructions  for  Elementary  Carving- 


277 


tlifTcrent  matter  to  swing  tliese  tilings  in  a  tough  piece  of  wood.  I  want 
the  pu])ils  to  be  able  to  look  at  a  Hat  jianel  or  a  rough  block  of  woo:l  ami  to 
see  its  possiljilities  and  potentialities.  I  want  them  to  be  able  mentally  to 
see  the  design  in  the  wood,  and  with  the  fewest  touches  to  form  this  pat- 
tern, not  l)y  ])icking  it  out.  as  too  many  often  model  and  carve,  bit  by  bit 
and  chip  by  chip,  but  by  freely  drawing  with  the  tools  in  the  wood.  This 
capacity  can  be  acquired,  and  all  good  carvers  have  it.  their  work  loi)king 
very  different  from  that  of  amateurs. 

Use    of  Finished    Work. — h   is  imporlant   for  children  to  .see   tin- 
isheil  pieces  of  work.       in  all  my  class  rooms,  even  in  the  niglit  schools,  we 

lllu.stration  325 


W..,.,l  L.irUiiK 
PosiliiMi  whin  usinu  the  hanil  m  a  mallrl.     The  huniU  should  .winit  .i»  friily  lu  |>o.«lblc  over  the  ciirvlnir. 


put  all  the  fmished  work  around  the  rooms  a  certain  length  of  time,  as  may 
be  observed  in  the  illustrations.  The  inii)ils  ihns  get  ideas.  They  can  see 
the  application  of  the  work,  and  can  follow  it  in  its  different  stages. 


278  Wood  Carving; 

Anollier  plan  that  I  have  pursued,  is  ahvays  to  ahow  the  children  to 
own  their  work.  It  must  not  be  kept  by  the  school  altogether,  to  be  used 
for  exhibition  purposes,  but  should  always  belong  to  the  child.  I  in- 
variably let  them  take  their  pieces  home  for  parents  and  friends  to  see;  then 
if  necessary  they  can  be  brought  Ijack  and  hung  up  a  certain  length  of  time, 
usually  till  after  the  spring  exhibition,  when  all  work  is  carried  home  by  the 
pupils.  Those  who  are  the  most  discouraged  in  carving,  who  find  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  work  out  the  backgrounds  and  to  struggle  with  the 
tough  wood  in  the  hard  places  and  in  the  corners,  where  it  is  so  difficult  to 
remove,  are  the  very  ones  who  need  the  work  the  most. 

For  educational  purposes,  experience  has  taught  me  that  a  certain 
proportion  of  children  will  dislike  tirawing  on  a  surface,  a  certain  proportion 
will  dislike  clay  work,  ami  a  certain  proportion  will  dislike  carving  in  wood. 
Frequently  these  are  the  very  pupils  who  do  exceptionally  well  in  the  other 
departments.  Do  not  let  them  for  this  reason  work  only  in  those  depart- 
ments. It  is  in  cases  like  this  that  we  need  the  value  of  the  work  as  dis- 
cipline. I  have  never  known  a  pupil,  because  he  liked  modeling  and  dis- 
liked carving,  to  stop  work  altogether  because  he  was  made  to  carve.  He 
does  the  carving  because  it  is  part  of  the  course,  and  the  modeling  because  he 
likes  it,  or  the  reverse.  After  a  while  all  the  pupils  are  intelligent  enough  to 
realize  the  value  of  each  department  as  training,  and  are  willing  to  pursue  it 
irrespective  of  their  likes  and  dislikes. 

As  a.  Training. — The  bitter  must  be  taken  with  the  sweet.  Never 
allow  pupils  to  elect  the  branch  in  which  they  should  work,  unless  in  case 
of  constitutional  defect,  when  exceptions  can  be  made;  for  instance,  when 
the  pupil  is  a  cripple  or  is  physically  weak.  There  is  a  great  disposition 
among  parents,  and  even  among  teachers,  to  let  children  "  do  as  they  will, 
rather  than  to  make  them  do  as  they  ought.  Moral  habits  must  be  formed 
in  children  long  before  you  can  teach  moral  principles.  In  the  end  the 
teacher  is  always  justified  in  the  mind  of  the  child  when  he  comes  to  re- 
alize the  value  of  the  habit,  and  later  of  the  principle."*  Carving  compels 
attention  mentally  and  visually,  in  combination  with  a  certain  amount  of 


♦Dr.  Phillip  S.  .VIoxom. 


Instructions  for  Elementary  Carvings 


279 


muscular  energy  that  must  be  exerted,  a  certain  amount  of  disposition  to 
tug  and  pull  the  tougli,  resisting  wood  into  shape. 

Persistent  activity  that  requires  the  use  of  a  close  grip  wilh  both  hands, 
and  that  recpiires  all  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  the  thorax  to  be  actively 


Illastration  326 


One     |*'--ltl'-ll    "t     ll.iml    Ml    ItnilL-llli: 

U.Uiilly  the  tools  arc  kept  turned  in  one  .lireilion  on  the  bench,  with  .huriKnin^  .lone  an.l  mallet  near  to  hand. 


engaged,  is  good  for  the  growing  children.  They  are  compcllctl  to  exert 
themselves  in  the  very  parts  of  their  being  that  are  but  little  usc.l  and  are 
allowed  to  be  torpid  most  of  the  time  in  schools.      The  chest  muscles,  the 


280  Wood  Carvingf 

t 
breatliing-  muscles,  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body, 
are  all  actix'elv  exercised  in  car\ing'.  This  is  doubly  valualjle  to  children, 
because  their' school  work  gi\-es  them  a  disposition  to  lack  energy,  making 
them  torpid  in  a  measure.  I  have  seen  children  who  are  actually  too  tired 
through  the  training  they  have  had,  to  be  willing  to  grip  the  handle 
tight  for  a  continuous  period.  This  is  a  very  bad  condition  for  the  pupil  to 
be  in.  and  carving  in  nearly  every  case  removes  it.  If  a  carver  has  any 
capacity  at  all,  it  will  be  generally  found  that  he  has  splendid  grip,  caused 
by  clutching  handles  for  a  certain  purpose.  We  want  this  capacity  in  our 
children,  and  I  believe  there  is  a  very  firm  connection  between  mental  grip 
and  pliysical  grip. 

Carving  also  is  unlike  sawing  and  planing,  and  a  good  many  other 
operations  that  merely  require  the  use  of  strength  without  much  mental 
effort,  since  every  touch  of  the  chisel  in  carving  must  be  guided  by  in- 
telligence. There  is  no  mechanical  work  aliout  it.  The  pu])il  cannot  use 
instruments  of  precision  or  other  mechanical  aid.  There  is  no  method  b_\' 
which  original  carving  can  be  done  without  the  use  of  the  mind.*  To 
prevent  cutting  too  far  he  must  exercise  continuously  the  eye,  the  hand,  and 
the  intelligence,  and  the  hands  must  continually  follow  certains  forms  or  lines 
and  those  onl_\".  That  is  the  reason  carving,  in  combination  with  drawing 
and  modeling,  takes  a  so  much  higher  rank  than  all  the  mechanical  methods 
or  the  mere  teaching  of  a  trade,  or  those  amateur  systems  of  knife-work, 
where  a  few  feeble  constructions  are  made  that  have  been  thought  out  by 
the  teacher, — repetitions  of  other  people's  ideas,  and  where  amateur  tools 
are  used. 

Finishing  the  Carving. — \\'hen  the  carving  has  been  modeled  so  far 
as  the  pupil  can  do  it,  the  background  can  be  finished  by  stamping  or  left 
exposed,  showing  the  chisel  marks.  The  former  is  done  by  going  all  over 
the  surface  with  the  point  of  a  stamp,  of  course  using  the  mallet  to  apply 
force.  A  stamp  may  be  made  of  a  big  nail  filed  on  the  end  to  the  desired 
shape.  Rough  or  fine  backgrounds  can  be  made  as  desired.  This  throws 
out  the  design  and  makes  the  background  even. 

Carving  and  modeling  are  much  superior  means  of  compelling  obser- 


*  Machines  are  now  construrtcd  that  cnn  copy  carving  very  exactly.     But  the  origrinal  piece  must  first  be  carved 
or  inodcletl  by  the  hand  and  mind. 


Instructions  for  Elementary  Carving;  28J 

vation  than  simple  drawing;  on  account  of  the  forms  having  been  made, 
they  become  fixed  in  the  mind  permanently,  when  in  drawing  or  in  looking, 
alone,  this  is  not  always  the  case.  After  modeling  or  carving,  usually  the 
first  time,  all  the  pupils  remark  the  fact  liiat  they  notice  shapes  that  they 
have  never  seen  before  on  the  most  familiar  objects — fences,  gratings,  build- 
ings, and  so  on. 

It  is  a  fact  that  not  one  person  in  a  hundred  knows  the  shape  of  some 
of  the  most  familiar  forms  till  they  have  actually  made  them.  By  know- 
ing. I  mean,  to  be  able  to  reconstruct  in  any  way  the  actual  form.  They 
usually  have  only  a  partial  concept,  and  the  universal  peculiarity  that  is  re- 
marked among  modelers  and  carvers  is  the  new  way  they  have  come  to  look 
at  things.  They  perceive  things  that  they  had  never  noticed  before  in 
their  environment,  and  they  cannot  hell)  but  speak  of  them  continually. 
This  is  simply  nothing  more  or  less  than  that  they  are  beginning  to  ob- 
serve to  some  ]5urpose  for  the  first  time  in  their  lives,  and  are  also  beginning 
to  put  their  powers  of  observation  into  practice.  They  assimilate  the  dif- 
ferences and  resemblances  of  things  that  they  see  and  embody  them  in  a 
work  of  their  own  hands  and  luinds.  In  other  words,  '"  they  have  added 
another  weapon  to  their  arsenal  of  power." 


Cur\'cd  k'uiicl. 


^( 


I . . .-  •  ^\ 


Lan^a  l.j  llii;h  >iliu..l  liuy 


CHAPTER  m 

Carving  the 
Elementary  Units  of 
Design 


/M  THIS  CilAPTI'lR  are  given  iiistriictioiis  in  carving  some  of  the  units 
of  design  and  simple  forms  used  for  elementary  work  in  drawing  and 
modeling.  In  most  of  mv  carving  classes  all  the  pupils  are  engaged  in 
making  these  forms  in  combination,  in  designs  on  panels,  etc.,  to  be  used 
for  various  purposes.  For  convenience  in  describing  methods,  however, 
the  units  have  been  carved  to  show  three  stages  or  steps  in  the  work — (i)  the 
form  grooved  out,  (2)  the  form  nearly  fmished.  (3)  quite  finished.  If  these 
cuts  are  studied  attentively,  the  work  of  carving  can  l)e  readily  performed. 

The  Scroll. — The  form  is  first  carefully  drawn  in  chalk  until  it  fits  the 
desirctl  space,  then  in  soft  lead  pencil  to  make  it  show  plainly.  Then  a  line 
is  gouged  around  the  form  as  slinwn  in  Illus.  3J9.  being  careful  not  to  cut  the 
pattern  and  to  get  clean,  clear  curves.  Tiicn  the  background  is  partly 
gouged  out.  The  second  step  is  to  cut  down  around  the  form  to  the  re- 
quired clepth  and  then  to  smooth  the  background.     The  raised  part  can  then 

(=83) 


284 


Wood  Carving 


be  modeled,  with  a  curved  surface  ou  tlie  inside  of  the  scroll  and  a  slope  on 
the  outside,  being  careful  not  to  cut  more  than  half-way  down  to  the 
background. 

One  can  readily  see  what  valuable  training  is  given  to  the  hand  and  the 

Illustration  329 


L';irving  the  Scroll 

The  first   part  shows  the  beginnitig  of   the  work,  the  form  heini^  grooved  out;  the 
second  partly  completed;  the  third  is  the  finished  carving  of  this  simple  scroll. 


eye,  when  the  pupils  can  swing  these  curves  freehand  in  the  tough,  unyield- 
ing wood.  What  a  valuable  training  it  is,  in  enabling  the  hand  to  swing 
accurate  and  true  forms  on  paper  or  surface  of  any  kind. 


Carving  the  I-eaf— Three  Stages 


The  Simple  Leaf. — The  leaf  in  this  example  (Illus.  330)  is  made 
about  the  same  in  proportion  as  the  leaf  used  in  drill  work  and  for  modeling. 
When  the  leaf  has  been  carved  the  form  is  more  vividlv  remembered  and  the 


Elcmeutary  Units  of  Design 


285 


magnitude  grasped  Iietter  than  through  merely  drawing  and  modeling  it. 
To  know  this  simple  form  accurately  is  a  help  in  making  all  other  forms. 

The  form  is  lirst  drawn  in  chalk:  when  the  proportions  suit,  with  soft 
lead  pencil.  Then  gouge  the  outline  and  remove  background,  as  illustrated 
in  the  first  stage.  Xow  sink  the  background  and  i)artly  form  the  surface  of 
the  leaf.  Third,  finish  curves  and  ribs.  Kvery  touch  with  tool  will  help  the 
student  to  embody  the  shape  and  draw  it  better. 

The  Spiral  TDtth  Crockets.  — This  form(  Illus.  331 )  is  more  elaborate 
and  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  spiral.  The  crockets  make  it  harder  to 
carve,  because  they  interrupt  the  curves,  but  with  a  little  ])ractice  the  forms 
can  be  made  to  flow  out  with  fine  tangential  curvature.  It  is  difficult,  at 
first,  to  make  the  corners  free  and  clean;  they  will  chip  off,  but  a  little  care 
will  prevent  it.     The  raised  edge,  or  moileled  line,  is  hard  to  make  fine  and 

Illustration  3^1 


Car\'io^  Spiml  Crucki;t» — The  Three  8tc|>n 


clean  the  first  few  times;  it  is  difficult  to  preveiu  it  being  angular, — gradual 
transition  from  curve  to  curve  is  neces.sary.  Right  here  the  i)upil  receives 
experience  in  persistence,  application,  jjalience,  combined  with  co-operation 
of  hand,  eve  and  mind.  .\11  this  has  an  important  intlucnce  in  forming 
habits  of  industry  and  a  love  for  work,  as  well  as  its  intluencc  manually  and 
mentally. 

'The  cAnthemion.  (Illus.  332.) — Let  this  be  drawn  in  chalk,  then 
in  pencil.  Then  (i)  remove  background,  (_')  next  deepen  the  background 
and  partly  model  the  various  lobes,  and  (3)  then  finish  the  i)ancl.  To  keep 
the  long  narrow  parts  of  the  lobes  clean  and  slender  is  hard,  but  with  practice 


286  Wood  Carving 

all  the  forms  can  be  nicely  modeled  with  the  tools.  Use  a  nearly  flat  curve 
for  this  finishing  work,  and  "feel"  the  curves  with  the  hand  continually.  The 
tool  should  cut  convex  curves  all  over  the  lobes. 

All  the  various  units  of  form  should  be  carved  repeatedly  in  various 
designs  suitable  for  use  as  panels  or  enrichments  for  furniture,  etc.  All  the 
models  in  the  various  parts  of  this  work  are  suitable  for  carving. 

'l^settes  are  forms  frequently  required  in  carving,  and  to  cut  some  of 
them  in  wood  gives  a  wonderful  accuracy  and  fitness.  The  calipers  are 
used  to  strike  the  circle  (Illus.  t,2,o)>  and  the  little  boss  in  the  center  of  the 
circle.  The  wood  can  then  be  scooped  out  with  the  gouge.  On  this 
curved  surface  the  leaflets  can  then  be  drawn.  With  a  curved  chisel  cut 
down  the  edges,  and  with  a  parting  tool  make  the  ribs  down  the  center  of 
each  leaflet.  Rememljer,  the  tips  stand  iq)  and  the  l^ackground  curves  in 
quite  deep,  the  entire  rosette  Ijeing  below  the  surface  of  the  piece  of  wood. 
The  stages  can  be  seen  at  333.  first  a  part  lead-penciled,  then  the  midrib 
partly  cut,  and  the  leaflets  at  the  back.  These  forms  are  simply  intended 
for  suggestions,  and  the  actual  forms  should  be  studied  from  examples  that 
can  readily  be  seen  in  man_\-  places.  A  second  form  is  suggested  at  c  in  Illus. 
333,  partly  finished  and  then  completely  finished.  Pursue  the  same  plan  in 
making  this  form  and  its  variations. 

Square  l^settes  can  also  be  maile  (Illus.  334).  Mark  out  the  form 
with  ruler,  put  on  the  diagonals  of  the  square,  make  the  little  circle  to  rep- 
resent the  boss  in  the  middle  of  the  rosette,  and  draw  the  inner  square. 
Next  cut  around  the  edge  of  the  leaves  with  the  chisel  and  sink  the  middle 
part  of  the  leaf,  then  trim  out  with  a  nearly  flat  chisel  the  points  between 
the  lea\-es;  next,  sink  the  background  still  deeper,  and  put  the  finishing 
touches  on  with  the  gouge,  as  illustrated.  In  all  this  work  requiring  the 
repetition  of  similar  forms,  we  allow  the  use  of  the  ruler  and  the  compass, 
simply  to  save  time.  The  actual  form  is  cut  with  the  hand  many  times,  even 
when  the  lead-pencil  marks  have  been  cut  away,  so  that  it  is  freehand  carv- 
ing, and  it  is  simply  for  convenience  that  we  space  off  with  the  calipers. 
Of  course  the  spacing  also  might  be  done  with  the  aid  of  the  eye  alone,  but 
it  would  never  look  quite  as  well.  It  is  only  in  patterns  of  this  kind,  like 
frets,  rosettes  and  moldings,  where  there  is  constant  repetition,  that  we  ever 
use  the  ruler  or  the  compass.  In  all  other  work  and  designs  of  different 
kinds,  the  eye  alone  is  used. 


Elementary  Units  of  Desig;n 


287 


Illustration  332 


Illustration  333 


1 
1     -  -                        ^ 

Carviog  the  Anthcmiou 


r 

^^ 

F 

/^f?^, 

,r^ 

1 

^, 

'  J 

1 
1 

i   , 

/ 

^  -^ 

1   - 

L.                              .'J 

Caning  Round  Ro>cttcs 


Illustration  3^ 


■y 


:y.^ 


CarviD({  bqujrc  Rovctlci 


288 


Wood  Carving 


The  next  rosette  form  in  the  square  is  a  httle  more  difficult,  b.  (Ilhis. 
334.)  Place  diagonals  of  the  square,  as  before,  make  the  center  boss  and 
then  mark  out  the  darts  and  the  scalloped  leaf  behind  tlie  darts.  Then  with 
a  chisel  cut  down  the  outline  of  the  form  and  remove  the  background.  In 
making  the  center  of  the  darts,  cut  the  middle  line  first  quite  deep,  and  then 
slope  down  to  it  with  a  nearly  flat  chisel.       The  curved  edges  of  the  form 


Illustration  335 


?1 


:aSBBBBE^ 


^m\ 


w/r- 


mm 


Curving  t'lutcd  Forms 


can  then  be  made  and  the  ribs  gouged  out.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged 
to  make  varieties  of  these  rosette  forms. 

The  next  rosette  is  still  more  complex,  and  represents  a  conventional 
leaf  running  out  to  the  four  corners,  r,  Illus.  334.  Draw  the  form  with  a 
soft  pencil  first,  then  cut  down  with  a  partly  curved  chisel,  remove  the  back- 
ground, gouge  out  the  sides  of  the  leaves,  as  shown  in  illustration,  and 
round  over  with  a  nearly  flat  tool.  The  balls  can  next  be  modeled  and  the 
veins  on  the  leaves  gouged  out.  The  background  is  then  finished  by 
stamping. 

Fluted  Forms  are  also  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  in  carving. 
(See  Illus.  335. j  Mark  out  the  surface  to  be  filled,  then  the  center,  then  with 
a  parting  tool  make  a  set  of  lines  ray  out  from  the  center,  and  cur\-e  over 
with  the  chisel, lastly  making  the  cur\ed  surface  at  the  end  of  each  ra\-,as  in  a. 

The  fluted  form  in  a  circle  {b)  is  more  difficult.  It  is  sunk  in  the  wood 
below  the  surface,  and  a  concave  form  must  first  be  made,  leaving  the  center 
boss  standing  up  Then  make  the  rays  around  the  circle  with  the  parting  tool 
and  curve  over.  Lastly  finish  the  edges  with  sharp,  clean  cuts.  The  next 
is  a  still  harder  rendering  of  the  same  form  and  the  ellipse,  with  the  fluting 


Elementary  Units  of  Design 


289 


making  a  double  curve,  as  at  c,  Illus.  335.  The  general  form  must  first  be  hol- 
lowed in  the  surface,  then  the  form  may  be  drawn  with  the  pencil  and  made 
as  before.  It  is  excellent  discipline  to  make  each  one  of  these  curve  and 
diminish  gradually.  An  exceeding  amount  of  patience  is  required,  which  is 
valuable  discipline  for  an\-  one.  A  steady  hand  and  a  true  eye  are  de- 
manded, and  if  these  are  properly  employed  there  is  a  sure  return,  and  a 
product  that  is  valuable,  useful,  and  beautiful. 

Conventionalized  Forms  for  Carving, — The  next  illustration  con- 
sists of  conventioalizcil  shell  forms.  7,x,i>.  These  are  made  the  same  way 
as  the  forms  just  described.  The  shape  is  to  be  drawn  with  the  pencil,  the 
surface  sunk  to  the  desired  depth,  and  then  the  flutings  or  lobes  are  to  be 
carved.  Shell  forms  are  aniong  the  most  beautiful  forms  that  can  be  made 
in  wood.  They  seem  especially  appro])riate.  and  endless  is  the  variety  of 
beautiful  results  that  can  be  obtained  by  simply  changing  the  depth  and  the 


Illustration  336 


-p. 


Carvings  ol  CiJiivLr>Uuti.tlucd  Shell  Forma 


relief  of  the  carving.     Sometimes  they  look  very  beautiful  when  scoope<l  in 
quite  deeply,  at  other  times  when  they  are  raised  up  in  high  relief. 

After  a  few  simple  forms  have  been  made,  like  those  illustrated,  many 
others  are  sure  to  be  observed,  and  fine  carved  work  of  difTerent  kinds,  and 
the  pupil  will  soon  have  a  desire  to  make  tliem.  and  the  carving  of  simple 
forms  will  readily  enable  one  to  grasp  the  more  complex  forms  when  they 
are  seen.  Carving,  actually  making  these  shapes  in  the  tough  wood,  is 
the  best  means  that  I  know  of  for  making  permanent  records  of  form.    This 

19 


290 


Wood  Carving 


is  the  reason  that  carving  is  one  of  the  essential  branches  in  this  method  oi 
training.  ]\Iany  elaborate  pieces  of  carved  furniture  have  been  made  by  the 
meml)ers  of  the  teachers'  classes  at  tlie  art  school.  They  work  very  faith- 
fulh-  and  it  is  valuable  as  an  offset  to  their  sedentarv  work  at  the  schools. 


Carved  by  Teacher  of  the  Public  Schools 


Carving  on  a  Cun'cd  Surface 

This  piece  of  work,  a  heavy  frame,   is  clamped  in  Ihc  hcnch  and  shows  iMisilion  of  handn  m  car\'in);  on  the 
curx'cd  hurfacc.     The  car\  in^  is  to  extend  all  around  the  frame. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Carving  on  Furniture  and 
Other  Advanced  Work 


X>\RVIX(;  IX  RHMRF  OX  Cl'KXHn  STRFACHS.— Pupils  must 
y^        get  skill  in  carving^  in  relief  and  on  cnrvecl  snrfaccs,  as  well  as  in 
tlat  carving.     They  slinnlil  make  several  panels  in  tlie  flat,  how- 
ever,    before     attempting     work     in     relief.        The     borders     illustrated 
herewith     (339   to    344    are     simi)le     and     can    he    used    for   a   variety    of 

(»9<) 


292 


Wood  Carving 


purposes  in  the  enrichment  of  furniture,  as  can  be  seen  by  the  various 
iHustrations.  In  making  the  first  strip,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  beads 
of  different  proportions  (IHus.  339),  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  caHpers, — a 
pair  witli  a  screw  preferred.  The  calipers  must  be  sharply  pointed,  and 
by  fixing-  it  to  the  size  required,  being  careful  to  screw  it  tightly,  the  length 

Illustration  359 


'mdMklAMMM 

mm^f 

.... 

*.tS-mt 

Beaded  Surface  Border 


Tongue  and  Dart  Molding 


of  each  bead  can  be  accurately  marked  with  the  point.  As  soon  as  this 
is  done,  take  a  flat  chisel  and  make  a  slight  indentation  between  each  two 
beads.  Enlarge  this  till  it  is  of  the  size  illustrated,  and  then  with  several  flat 
tools,  of  small  size,  model  each  ball  or  curve.  It  is  cpiite  hard  to  make  them 
even  and  equal.  If  one  is  cut  too  small,  by  accident,  do  not  make  the  rest 
so.     Go  on  with  the  work,  making  them  the  proper  sizes. 

A  spoiled  one  can  be  cut  off  and  a  piece  of  wood  glued  on  again  to  be 
carved.  Almost  all  forms  carved  in  wood  can  be  repaired  in  this  way.  It  is 
almost  impossible  for  skilled  carvers  not  to  break  off  occasional  pieces.  These 
can  be  glued  on  again,  or,  if  lost,  another  piece  of  wood  can  be  glued  on  and 
then  cut  to  the  desired  shape.  It  is  very  stupid  to  see  a  pupil  cut  oft'  all  the 
elevations  or  points  or  crockets,  as  the  case  may  be,  simply  because  one  or 
two  are  broken  or  spoiled  in  cutting. 


Furniture  and  Other  Advanced  Work.  293 

The  3^xt  T'iece  of  Molding  is  the  tongue  and  dart,  or  egg-dart 
niolfling,  (^Ulus.  340.J  It  is  seen  ireiinently  in  wood  and  stone,  and 
is  consiilered  to  be  one  of  the  best  of  all  moldings.  All  of  these  pieces  of 
wood  have  been  shaped  by  machinery  tirst,  and  can  be  purchased,  with  the 
desired  curve,  at  almost  any  mill.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  student  to  do 
this  preliminary  work;  it  would  simply  be  a  waste  of  time.  This  design  is 
also  to  be  marked  out  with  the  calipers  in  the  beginning,  iieing  sure  to  get 
the  ovals  or  tongues  equal  in  size,  and  to  make  them  of  such  size  that  the  re- 
quired number  will  til!  the  space.  This  must  be  done  by  marking  or 
measuring  off  the  entire  surface  first.  As  soon  as  it  is  spaced  out  with  the 
calipers,  take  a  soft  pencil  and  draw  the  outline  of  the  raised  edges.  Next 
take  a  parting  tool  and  form  the  outline  of  the  tongue  and  the  darts.  (See 
cut.)  The  ne.xt  step  is  to  deepen  this,  as  illustrated,  then  to  make  the 
cur\-e  on  the  tongue  and  to  form  the  two  slopes,  making  the  dart.  The 
background  can  next  be  cleaned  out  and  the  further  depression  inade  on 
the  dart.  This  work  requires  considerable  care  and  accurate  cutting  to 
make  the  darts  look  even,  and  is  very  good  discipline.  It  is  best  not  quite  to 
finish  several  forms, — simply  to  block  them  out  and  then  go  over  them  again 
when  the  hand  is  more  accustomed  to  the  form. 

The  next  molding  is  made  on  a  single  curved  piece,  and  cuntaiiis  the 
dart  and  double  curves,  producing    a    more    elaborate    form,     (lllus.  341.) 


Illustration  341 


lMi{p>'U 


Plaio  Curved  .Molding 

This  nnist  l)e  marked  out  with  the  calipers,  |)icking  out  ail  the  points  and 
distances,  after  wliich  the  forms  should  be  drawn  with  a  soft  pencil.  The 
midrib  can  next  be  marked  out  with  the  i)arting  tool  and  the  <!oublc  curve 
made  with  a  small  gouge.  A  larger  gouge  can  then  be  usc<l  and  the  form 
modeled  over  to  the  groove  with  a  nearly  llat  chisel.     Next  work  out  the 


294 


Wood  Carvings 


dart,  keeping  a  sliarp  edge  down  the  center  anil  making  the  corners  sharp 
and  clean. 

Another  Easy  Molding  requiring  great  care,  liowever,  can  lie  made 
on  the  same  curve,  as  iUustrated  in  Xo.  342.  This  is  to  be  spaced  off  with 
the  caHpers,  after  which  the  form  can  be  drawn  with  the  soft  pencil  Use 
a  smah  gouge  to  start  the  outline  of  the  curved  forms,  and  the  straight 
chisel  or  a  i)arting  tool  to  start  the  darts.        The  form  can  then  be  fln- 

Ulustration  342 


Plain  Curved  Yielding 

ished  as  illustrated.  The  next  two  forms  (343  and  344)  are  complex,  mak- 
ing use  of  the  acanthus  leaf  curling  over  at  the  top.  This  yields  a  very 
beautiful  series  of  forms  for  elaborate  work.  Mark  out  carefully  with  the 
calipers  the  size  or  space  to  be  occupied  by  each  leaf,  then  draw  each  leaf 
carefully  with  a  soft  pencil,  as  illustrated  in  the  first  stage.       The  form  can 

Illustration  343 


Acanthus  Leaf  Molding 


then  be  cut  in  with  a  curved  chisel,  using  the  parting  tool  to  make  the  rib 
up  the  center  of  each  leaf.  Next,  lower  the  surface  between  each  two 
leaves,  the  rib  of  the  partly  seen  leaf  to  remain  raised.  Then  the  pipes 
and  undulations  on  the  leaflets  can  be  modeled  with  different-sized  gouges 


Furniture  and  Other  Advanced  Work  295 

and  flat  curves.  The  top  of  the  leaf  can  also  be  cut  down  and  modeled 
over,  allowing  the  molding  to  show  behind  each  leaf.  It  will  be  found  quite 
difiicult  to  get  the  edge  to  run  straight.  The  spaces  between  the  leaves  at 
the  top  must  be  made  rather  deep.  The  four  stages  are  well  shown  in  the 
accompanying  cut  (344).  , 

.\nother  style,  on  the  same  kind  of  molding,  is  siiown  in  the  next  illus- 
tration. Some  tind  this  a  little  harder  and  some  find  it  easier  to  make 
than  the  other  one.  It  is  to  be  done  in  the  same  way,  marking  out  with 
the  calipers,  as  before,  the  space  to  be  occupied  by  each  leaflet,  then  cutting 
down  with  the  curved  chisel  the  edge  of  the  leaflet,  as  siiown 
in  the  illustration,  then  sinking  the  part  around  the  leaf,  allowing  the  partly 
seen  leaf  to  stand  up  in  the  middle.  The  surface  is  modeled  by  making  the 
ridges  and  forming  two  sloping  surfaces  running  to  the  end  of  each  leaflet. 
It  is  a  little  difiicult  to  make  all  these  pipes  equal  in  the  beginning.     All  of 

Illustration  J44 


Acanthus  Leaf  .Mulcliii); 


this  work  should  be  cut  m  oak  at  first.  This  wo.x!  is  a  little  tough  and  is 
not  so  liable  to  chip  as  walnut,  cherry  or  mahogany.  Disaster  is  sure  to 
happen  in  a  few  places  at  first,  but  when  the  leaflet  has  been  carved  a  num- 
ber of  times,  it  can  be  done  with  ease. 

The  cNs^  Piece  of  Carving  illustrate<l  is  elaborate,  and  should  not 
be  attempted  unless  the  pupil  has  niodele.l  the  form  in  clay  a  number  of 
times.  The  shell  form  is  one  that  is  frefjucntly  used  in  carving,  and.  with 
tlie  leaf,  forms  a  nice  shape  to  l)e  used  for  many  purposes,  for  instance,  on 
a  cornice,  on  a  chair  back  or  part  of  a  settee,  on  picture  frames,  and  so  on. 

It  is  best  not  to  copy  these  very  elaborate  forms  froiu  the  illustrations. 
This  would  prove  a  little  too  ditVicult.       They  are  simply  placed  here  as 


296 


Wood  Carving 


examples  of  carving.  Students  will  see  carving  of  all  kinds  when  their 
eyes  become  opened  through  the  work,  and  good  examples  may  be  seen  in 
wood,  stone  and  metal  on  different  buildings,  which  can  be  reproduced.  It 
is  only  by  frequent  observation  that  pupils  become  aware  of  form  and  ac- 

lllustration  345 


y/"-— ^Ji^l^At^^^       M 


^^■21 


Partly  Ciirvud  Piecu,  Suitable  for  Chair  BacX 

tually  notice  shape.       Every  time  a  different  piece  of  work  is  carved,  the 
student  will  have  increased  ability  to  perceive  various  forms. 

Forms  Suitable  for  Carving. — lullustrations  346  and  347  show  a 
variety  of  frames  that  can  be  made  of  different  sizes  for  many  different  pur- 
poses.    Made  with  narrow  borders  they  are  very  suitable  for  water  colors 


Illustrations  346-347 


Cirved  by  Night  School  Pupils 


and  engravings;  made  innch  heavier  and  of  thicker  wood  they  are  suitable 
for  oil  colors  and  mirrors;  made  still  larger,  and  with  metal  hat  pins,  they 
are  suitable  for  hat  racks,  and  are  convenient  pieces  of  furniture  to  have  in 
different  parts  of  the  house. 


i'urniturc  and  Other  Advanced  Work 


297 


The  series  of  chairs  illustrated  show  a  variety  of  shapes,  ailiis.  348.') 
Some  of  them  may  appear  to  be  overloaded  with  carving.  This  is  simply 
a  matter  of  economy,  and  thougli  I  know  the  forms  in  some  cases  will  be 
better  if  they  were  not  carved  so  much,  it  is  simply  to  provide  surfaces  for 
work  that  they  were  made  originally.  Some  of  these  chairs  consist  of 
five  pieces,  each  piece  of  which  is  heavily  carved,  thus  affording  the  pupils 
several  hours  of  work  on  each.  The  blanks  for  the  chairs  vary  in  price, 
some  $3  to  $5.  according  to  the  amount  of  labor  expended  upon  them.  The 
chairs  are  usually  delivered  in  the  white  and  doweled  together,  so  that  they 


chairs  Designed  and  Carvx-d  by  Publ.^  .-v..."-.  I'upils 


can  be  taken  apart  with  a  few  taps  of  the  mallet  and  carved.  Two  or  three 
chairs  will  thus  furnish  occupation  for  a  whole  class  for  a  number  of 
periods. 

The  designs  are  in  no  two  cases  alike.  This  will  be  foun<!  true  with  re- 
gard to  every  pattern  in  any  material  made  by  any  of  our  classes,  each  cliild 
according  to  its  capacity  creating  the  forms  most  suited  fi>r  use.  I  do  not 
pretend  to  defend  all  the  patterns.  In  some  cases  they  are  crude  and  could 
be  made  much  better,  but  being  the  w(irk  that  the  child  sometimes  started 
before  the  teachers  couM  modify  or  criticise,  it  has  been  finished  and  must 
stand  on  its  merits.  It  is  very  easy  for  a  good  teacher  to  give  good  lessons 
in  designing  and  construction,  using  as  examples  the  good  patterns  or  the 
bad  ones  made  by  the  class.       Examples  of  poor  work  therefore  teach  by 


295 


Wood  Carving: 


Illustrations  349-350 


FeiiKtle 
Italian  Renascence  Carvin^^  bv  Farari,  in  the  Studio  of  the  Author 


contrast.  No  class  of  people  perceive  errors  and  faults  in  designing  and 
construction  quicker  than  children.  Usually  they  will  be  found  to  select 
the  best.  There  is  an  endless  variety  of  forms  that  afford  practice  for 
work  in  wood.  Chests  of  various  sizes  can  be  made  with  six,  eight,  ten  or 
twelve  panels.  Settees  also  give  opportunity  for  large  pieces  of  work  and 
can  be  carved  liberally  all  over.  A  variety  of  small  work  can  be  made,  like 
book-racks,  mirror-backs,  screens,  cabinets,  closets,  hanging  shelves.  Clock 
cases,  half  size  and  full  length,  are  in  demand  and  usually  find  a  ready  sale. 
Carving  is  work  especially  appropriate  for  children,  for  the  reason  that 
they  are  embodying  value  in  the  material  upon  which  they  work.       This 


Furniture  and  Other  Advanced  Work 


299 


thev  realize  from  the  beginninsf.  Tbcy  are  also  learning  the  value  of  per- 
sistent hard  work,  and  they  get  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  of  art  forms 
and  real  drawing  that  cannot  he  acquired  in  any  other  way.  Their  taste 
and  appreciation  of  common  things  around  them  is  enlarged,  and  the  works 
of  their  hands  usually  enter  into  a  great  many  places  where  taste  and  ap- 
preciation are  lacking,  and  thus  act  as  missionaries.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  night  schools. 

I  am  mucli  surprised  to  notice  the  small  number  of  schools  among  all 
the  art  institutions  of  the  country  where  carving  is  thoroughly  taught.       It 

Illustration  351-354 


i— The  Plain   lUock 


-llic  l*'orin  ilcgun 


V 


J 


/ 


3— <^iLrving  Mure  Adv^uiccd 


4— The  h'iiiii>hcit  Wgrk 


Carving  a  Cupid's  Head 


is  lauc^lit  in  some,  hut  in  the  lari^cr  nnmhcr  it  is  cMitircly  iicj^Hcctcd.      Mak- 
ing form  in  tough,  resisting  material  is  one  of  the  truest  and  hest  methoils  of 


300  Wood  Carvingr 

gaining  permanent  and  organic  ideas  of  form.  Surely  tliis  is  especially 
important  to  the  art  workers  in  tlie  liigher  fields  of  art.  It  certainly  was  a 
part  of  the  education  of  some  of  the  greatest  of  the  old  masters,  wlio  fre- 
quently carved  in  stone  and  other  materials.  The  energy  and  diligence 
begotten  by  carving,  where  it  is  properly  taught,  are  also  of  the  utmost  value 
in  counteracting  the  disinclination  to  manual  effort  that  occurs  so  often  in 
children  whose  school  hours  are  largely  occupied  with  book  studies.  This 
fostering  of  an  energetic  disposition,  along  with  true  ideas  of  elementary  art, 
is  by  no  means  the  least  important  benefit  of  wood  carving  and  real  manual 
training.  Most  of  us  have  got  to  work  for  a  living,  and  education  should 
give  us  energy  for  work  instead  of  a  disinclination  for  it.  Not  only  this,  but 
carving  compels  accuracy,  attention  to  details,  the  doing  of  things  well,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  carelessness  in  the  work  of  one's  hands  which  is 
sometimes  begotten  in  children  who  learn  from  books  alone.  The  carver, 
whether  self-taught  or  learning  from  an  instructor,  will  cjuickly  see  that 
slovenly  work  will  show,  that  the  carving  will  reflect  something  of  his  own 
character.  The  pupil  will  also  recognize  the  difference  between  the  result 
when  he  tries  to  do  his  best,  or  when  he  is  careless.  The  wood  will  tell  the 
truth,  always  an  important  lesson. 

Carving  in  the  Round.  — In  this  part  only  a  sugge.stion  of  what  can 
be  clone  is  possible.  In  another  volume  I  shall  give  detailed  instruction  in 
all  kinds  of  wood  carving,  with  many  examples  of  all  the  styles.  \^ery  beau- 
tiful examples  of  wood  carving  still  exist,  made  by  artists  of  different  periods. 
\\'ood  of  different  kinds,  especially  the  Italian  chestnut,  is  suitable  for  sculp- 
tor's work,  and  very  elaborate  work  may  be  seen  in  Ital}-  of  groups  of  figures, 
etc.  Examples  of  fine  modern  Italian  carving  are  given  in  lUus.  349  and 
350,  made  by  Farari. 

The  series  of  four  cuts  on  the  previous  page  show  the  successive 
stages  in  blocking  out  a  Cupid's  head  with  wings:  i,  the  plain  block  made  of 
several  pieces  of  wood  glued  together;  2,  the  same  partly  carved  with  form 
in  the  rough:  3.  the  head  and  wings  showing  distinctly,  but  still  unfinished; 
4,  the  work  as  it  appears  finished. 

Two  examples  are  given  of  winged  griffins  suitable  for  the  arms  of 
settees  (Illus.  355-356).  The  first  is  shown  partly  carved,  with  the  form  only 
just  beginning  to  show  the  intention.  The  block  of  wood  is  three  inches 
thick  and  is  a  piece  of  mahogany.     It  is  clamped  on  the  benches,  as  shown 


Furniture  and  Other  Advanced  Work 


301 


in  some  of  the  other  pictures 
of  pu])ils  working,  and  is  being 
matle  by  one  of  tlie  advanced 
pupils  of  studio  classes.  The 
second  form  shows  a  similar 
piece  of  work  of  different  de- 
sign entirely  finished.  The 
body  consists  of  one  block  of 
wood,  the  wing  being  an  addi- 
tion after  the  other  part  has 
been  carved.  Work  of  this 
character  cannot  be  done  un- 
less the  pui)ils  have  a  \ivid 
memory  of  form  and  have  had 
good  manual  training. 

Dolphins  are  freciucntly 
carved  in  wood,  and  the  fol- 
lowing example  (Illus.  357)  is 
freciuently  cut  by  some  of  the 
pupils.  The  form  is  changed 
and  motlifietl  to  suit  any  pur- 
pose, and  is  comparatively 
easy  to  cut.  Both  sides  are 
carved,  and  it  makes  a  suitable 
arm  for  chair  or  hall  bench. 

A  great  variety  of  forms, 
such  as  iron  and  brass  castings, 
or  gas  fi.xtures,  grills  and  other 
ornamental  objects,  are  first 
carved  in  wood  and  then  used 
as  patterns  for  making  the 
castings.  Several  examples 
are  given  of  forms  of  this  kind, 
also  architectural  detail  for  in- 
terior work,  such  as  caps,  pilas- 
ters, panels,  rosettes,  etc. 


lU^tl   l-'.ill 


Ann  for  Settee 
This   illustrates  the  block  of  wood  partly  cao'cd,  with  the 
head  wings,   etc.,  in   the  rough.    The  form   is  car\cd  on   both 
sides. 

Illustration  356 


Aiiolli.  r  Ann  tor  >.  Itce 
This  is  anotJier  form  of  biuiilar  ch;iractcr  completely  fininhrd. 

Illustration  357 


'-:^^>^ 


M|>liiii  Ann  for  Cliiiir 


302 


Wood  Caiving 


Illustrations  358-365 


1^^      I     ^^^^^^ 


ni!i 


Carved  I*:itterns  for  Metal 


These  designs  are  carved  in  wood  for  vario\is  purposes, 
and  electric  light  fixtures,  etc.,  are  carved  in  wood  first. 


to  be  cast  in  metal.     Many  patterns  for  brass  work,  g-as 


BOOK  FIVE 

Various  Applications  of  Art 
Methods,  Real  Manual 
Training  and  Nature  Study 


J.     CONSTRUCTION -Mechanical  Drawing  and  Wood-Working 

2.  CORRELATION  of   Art,  Real   Manual    Training  and    Nature  Study   with   Other 

Instruction 

3.  SPECIAL  SCHOOLS—'")  Night  Schools,  (/*  i  Vacation  Schools,  (»)  Normal  Schools, 

III'  Summer  Schools 

4.  OTHER  APPLICATIONS— (ff)  Decorating  School  Rooms,  {h)  Backward    Pupils, 

{(■)  Insane  and  Feeble  Minded,  ('')  Truant  Schools,  {<•)  Reformatory  Institutions, 
(/'j  Miscellaneous 

5.  THE  FINE  ARTS-Some  Suggestions  for  Art  Students 


O 

I 
>■ 
f- 


f- 

0. 


-3 

■r,  -^ 


"I    C^ 


0,= 


.7"  "* 
.i  >.  O 


CHAPTER  I 


Construction  in 
Woodwork  and 
Mechanical 
Drawing 


XrEKlKXel-:  leads  me  to  be- 
lieve that  constructive  work 
as  taiif,'lit  in  many  schools, 
similar  to  joinery  or  cahinet- 
makini;:.  ^ "  <1  mechanical 
(Iranjjhtinjj,  are  of  little  value 
educationally,  except  to  the 
specialist.  witJiout  previous 
traininj^  in  the  art  work  and 
real  manual  training  1  have 
been  a<lvocating  in  the  |)re- 
ceding  chajiters.  When  pu])ils 
have  ac(|uired  a  certain  dex- 
terity of  hand  and  accuracy  of 
eye  and  are  able  to  draw, 
model  and  carve  reasonably 
well,  then  it  is  of  advantage  for  them  to  attempt  constructive  work  and  me- 
chanical drawing.  They  should  then  be  about  14  years  of  age.  or  rea<lv  for 
the  iiigh  school,  and  should  have  ac(|uireil  complete  control  of  their  hands 
in  manual  dexterity,  and  be  able  to  ilraw  fairly  well  anil  observe  accurately. 
Then,  and  not  until  then,  arc  they  reailv  for  tools  ami  tool-processes  and 
instruments  of  precisit)n. 

The  fallacy  of  teaching  boys  car|)enter  work  or  mecl.anical  ilraught- 
20  (J^s) 


l*allcrn  Nfukin^ 
Various  p.-itlrms  made  by  the  hoys,  to  be  cast  in  metal. 


306 


Various  Applications 


ing  without  this  elementary  experience  in  real  manual  trammg  is  illustrated 
in  nearly  all  the  pupils  issuing  from  the  so-called  manual-training  schools; 
beyond  the  limited  trade  processes  in   which   tlie_\'  have  been  trained,  they 

llustration  367 


Wood  Working 
A  lesson  in  sawing.     All  forms  are  made  from  rough  timber,  the  boys  cutting  it  from  planks  as  required. 


do  not  have  manual  dexterity.  Any  ordinary  test  will  show  this.  Few  of 
such  graduates  can  do  even  the  elementary  art  work  illustrated  in  this  book. 
They  lack  the  ability  to  make  the  hand  obey  eye  or  mind  in  doing  work 
outside  of  the  few  processes  in  which  it  is  trained,  and  are  of  course  almost 
wholly  deficient  on  the  art  side. 

A  Rddtca.1  Fedtare  oi  our  manual-training  method  is  the  absence  of 
machinery,  steam  power,  turning  lathes,  etc.  Machine-shop  methods  have 
never  yet  produced  and  will  never  produce  craftsmen  who  are  mechanically 
and  artistically  equal  to  those  of  the  best  periods  of  history.       Of  course  this 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing 


307 


is  an  industrial  age,  and  our  material  progress  so  far  has  depended  largely 
on  the  harnessed  power  of  steam,  electricity,  etc.,  Imt  in  a  measure  this  has 
been  at  the  expense  of  the  individual.  Xo  system  of  education  or  prtigress 
can  afi'ord  to  miss  the  lessons  of  the  great  periods  in  craftsmanship,  when 
the  individual  workers  put  their  soul,  feelings  and  emotions  into  the  work  of 

Illustration  568 


Making  JuinU 
A  rouifh  fru  hand  drawing  of  Ihc  joint  under  di»cu»i>iiin  i>  »hii>vn  on  the  hUckhoard.    The  teacher  !•  trslinK  lU 
fitnoB. 


tlicir  hands  in  stone,  metal  and  wood.  We  are  far  irt.m  etiualing  tlic 
buildings  an<l  masonry  of  the  past,  and  «.ur  mechanics  and  CDunnon  people 
scarcelv  realize  what  artistic  excellence  means  in  metal,  stone  ami  woo.l. 


f- 


!- 
< 


T3 
O 

O 


=  -a 


^   to 


o 
o 
Di 

o 


2   =- 


G)nstruction  and  Mechanical  Drawing; 


309 


Tlio  iilc;i  is  loo  coininon  that  a  inaiuial-trainin.Lj  school  should  he  a  ma- 
chine shop.  This  was  one  of  the  many  forms  of  so-called  manual  train- 
ing that  the  author  early  tried  and  found  wantinsa^.  The  deficiencies  of 
machine-shop  practice  for  the  puriKises  of  educating  hand  and  eye,  as  well 
as  hrain,  are  now  generally  recognized  among  progressive  educators,  hut 

Illustration  369 


Itiiilclin*;   Construction 
Unttni^licil  nwtdcl  of  simple  tVutiu*  building,  Mhowint;  di-t:lil  conittrurtion.     \\<>rk   "-I  ini-  kiiul  i- ol   llu- KrtMtcst 
practical  value  to  the  boys,  and  gives  excellent  fipp^jrtunity  to  correlate  mechanical  ilrawin^. 


these  deficiencies  are  all  the  more  pronounced  when  hoys  are  i)ut  into  ma- 
chine-shop practice  without  the  elementary  training  already  advocated. 

It  is  not  denied  that  using  machines  gives  some  skill,  and  that  they 
are  in  their  i)roper  |)lace  in  the  trade  school,  hut  tliere  are  many  operations 
for  handwork  in  constructions  oi  various  kimls  th.it  jirodiice  more  skill  and 


3 JO  Various  Applications 

facility,  and  therefore  these  are  more  educational.  The  time  of  the  young 
during  the  nascent  period  is  too  precious  to  be  wasted  in  teaching  them 
how  to  use  machines;  it  should  be  devoted  to  the  development  of  their  own 
organism,  to  the  training  of  eye  and  hand  as  well  as  of  mind. 

The  whole  tendency  of  modern  industry  is  to  make  machines  of  us 
soon  enough,  and  how  pitiful  the  narrowness  of  life,  the  one-sided  develop- 
ment, of  the  millions  whose  capacity  is  measured  only  by  their  ability  to 
operate  an  ingenious  machine.  The  fact  that  many  occupations  and  trades 
do  thus  confine  both  mind  and  body  within  a  stultif\ing  range,  is  all  the 
more  reason  for  so  developing  the  mind  and  body  that,  while  doing  to  per- 
fection even  the  routine  work  one  may  have  to  do.  he  or  she  may  be  so 
trained  as  to  rise  abo\'e  the  otherwise  narrowing  effects  of  constant  attend- 
ance upon  machines  or  mechanical  processes  and  be  able  to  appreciate  and 
enjoy  the  beautiful  and  good  in  nature  and  in  the  common  things  of  every- 
day life.  It  is  a  great  thing  to  be  so  trained  as  to  be  happy,  joyous  and  en- 
thusiastic— to  be  so  educated  as  to  know  how  to  enjoy  life  and  how  to 
make  the  most  of  it  in  whatever  station  our  lot  mav  be  cast. 

Machine-Shop  Practice  Has  Its  Place.  — Since  long  and  costly  ex- 
perience has  demonstrated  the.  greater  educational  power  of  hand  operations, 
the  time  has  come  to  relegate  machine-shop  practice  to  its  proper  place. 
In  the  technical  school  or  trade  school,  it  serves  a  remarkably  useful  pur- 
pose. That  purpose  is  to  impart  to  the  youth  who  expects  to  be  a  me- 
chanic or  an  engineer  the  expert  training  and  practical  knowledge  of  ma- 
chines and  processes  employed  in  his  trade  or  profession.  Hence  there  is 
even  more  necessity  for  trade  schools,  engineering  schools,  textile  schools 
and  similar  technical  institutes  than  there  is  for  colleges  of  medicine  and 
surgery,  divinitj'  or  law.  But  just  as  there  are  better  means  of  giving  ele- 
mentary and  high-school  instruction  mentally  than  that  of  introducing  the 
studies  that  specially  qualifx'  the  doctor,  lawyer  or  minister  for  their  pro- 
fessions, so  there  are  better  exercises  for  imparting  real  manual  training  to 
the  youth  than  the  trade  processes  and  machine  methods  so  important  to 
the  specialist  in  mechanics,  steam  or  electricity. 

In  technical  schools  for  special  pupils,  machinery  of  various  kinds  and 
the  use  of  power  (electricity  or  steam)  may  be  employed  with  reason,  but  I 
must  be  understood  here  to  protest  only  against  the  misuse  of  these  things 
during  the  early  stages  of  many  boys'  lives.       Before  boys  are  15  or  16  years 


Plate  Twfntv  <i.\ 


Illustrating  Roof  Conslruclion 

I— King;  I"""!  Hoof  Trum         j— Tru»«  for  Curb  Ho4if 

(3") 


3J2 


Various  Applications 


of  age,  if  they  have  had  real  manual  training  any  good  teacher  can  pick  out 
the  ones  suited  to  be  engineers  and  mechanical  workers.  Their  capacity 
in  these  directions  will  then  have  shown  itself.       These,  of  course,  can  enter 

Illustration  370 


Wood    Working 
The  first  boy  is  cutting  a  dovetail,  and  the  second  boy  is  sharpening  a  chisel;  correct  positions  are  shown. 


the  special  or  trade  schools,  but  to  give  machinery  and  machine  work  to 
large  classes  of  young  boys  irrespective  of  their  capacity  and  dispositions, 
before  they  have  had  real  manual  training  and  a  certain  amount  of  art 
work,  is  as  foolish  educationally  as  to  make  them  all  carpenters  only. 

Large  Economy.  — This  point  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  in 
order  to  correct  a  prevailing  false  notion  about  manual  training.  It  also 
shows  that  a  costly  equipment  of  machinery  is  not  necessary  for  an  ad- 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing; 


313 


vanced  manual-training  school,  ami  tliis  tlemonstrates  the  feasibility  of  a  far 
more  general  ajiplication  of  manual-training  methods  than  has  heretofore 
been  thought  possible.  We  see  too  that  the  introduction  of  rational  meth- 
ods of  manual  training  in  cities  now  ])rovided  with  machinery  in  their  man- 
ual-training departments,  will  i)ave  the  way  for  utilizing  such  e(|uii)ments  of 
machinery  for  trade  schools  or  technical  institutes,  thus  accomjjlishing  an- 
other good  object  at  a  minimum  of  expense. 

This  ine.xpensiveness  of  ecpiipment  for  the  meciianical  department  of 
our  manual-training  method  is  all  the  more  important  when  attended,  as 
it  is,  by  better  results.  How  chca])ly  this  department  can  be  tilted  up.  as 
contrasted  with  the  expensive  machine-shop  plan,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
list  of  tools  for  a  room  large  enough  to  acconunodate  twenty  benches,  given 


Illustration  371 


Queen  P*>»t  Koof  Tru»» 


at  the  close  of  this  chapter.  Twenty  |)upils  will  form  a  suitable  class  for  one 
instructor,  and  300  pupils  can  receive  one  ami  a  half  hours'  lesson  in  one 
week  during  sessions  from  <)  a.  m.  to  _•  j).  m.  The  list  has  been  found  by  ex- 
perience to  suit  classes  of  high-school  boys,  and  to  be  reasonably  complete. 


314 

lllusfrations  :i7;-376 


Various  Applications 


Motk-l  ..t  _\:.  :    ■        ....  Lulamn 
Base  and  Kntablature 


\ 


\ 


s 


f 


""^^^ 


I— Dovetail  Scarf  Joint 

2 — Scarf  Joint 

3— Complex  Mortise  Slip  Joint 

4— Simple  Mortise  Slip  Joint 


Oinstruction  and  Mechanical  Drawings 


315 


l-u].. 


..^  i>rojcclions  free  lianii 


Use  of  Head  Work,  — Believing  that  one  who  lacks  practice  in 
skill  cannot  become  skillful,  we  do  not  sn!)stitntc  machines  for  skilled  opera- 
tions. Even  round  forms  and  their  modifications  are  made  hv  hand  with 
hand  tools,  instead  of  being  turned  upon  a  lathe.  This  compels  the  develop- 
ment of  a  skill  of  hand  and  eye  not  possible  to  those  who  make  sim- 
ilar forms  only  on  machines.  And  this  makes  the  hand  more  ready  to 
work  a  machine  skillfully  when  necessary.  In  short,  we  get  a  co-ordination 
of  hand,  eye,  and  mind  by  handicraft  that  no  amount  of  machine  work  will 
compensate  for.  Along  with  mechanical  precision  we  also  get  an  artistic 
excellence  of  execution  and  encourage  originality  of  conception  not  pos- 
sible with  mechanical  repetitions,  or  repetitions  of  forms  made  mechanically. 

Rotation  of  Work.  — In  this  branch  of  manual  training  ])ui)ils  ro- 
tate from  mechanical  drawing  to  work  in  wood  during  each  lesson,  just  as 
in  their  previous  training  they  rotated  the  branches  of  drawing,  modeling 
and  carving.  Do  not  let  them  take  separate  courses  of  one  or  the  other. 
The  best  plan  is  to  correlate  the  two  branches  by  making  the  pupils  draw 
the  forms  in  their  various  stages  and  then  construct  them,  of  course  giv- 
ing thorough  instruction  in  use  of  tools  and  instruments  t'lrst. 


316 


Various  Applications 


The  abstruse  ideas  embodied  in  working  drawings,  plans,  sections, 
etc.,  sliould  become  as  familiar  to  the  pupils  as  their  previous  studies  have 
made  them  familiar  with  common  forms.  Pupils  should  become  accus- 
tomed from  the  beginning  to  making  and  reading  these  drawings  and  len- 

lllustratioii  378 


Isometric  Drawing 
A  demonstration  in  isometric  drawini^,  the  cube  and  variouo  pints  are  beina:  explained. 


daring  them  in  material.  The  planning  should  be  part  and  parcel  of  the 
doing.  Only  in  this  way  will  the  youth  grasp  the  vital  connection  between 
the  two  and  be  able  to  make  the  most  of  it.  A  course  in  mechanical  draft- 
ing dissociated  from  the  execution  of  the  work,  is  as  deficient  educationally 
as  freehand  drawing  which  is  not  correlated  with  other  school  work.  It 
is  as  barren  of  results  as  to  expect  a  love  of  nature  or  of  the  beautiful  in 
art  to  be  created  by  the  drawing  and  contemplation  of  stupid  wooden  blocks 
and  the  type  forms  by  unwilling  pupils. 

Objects  of  Instruction.  — The  object  is  to  give  a  deep  and  com- 
prehensive training,  rather  than  a  detailed  and  one-sided  mechanical  educa- 
tion. It  is  not  possible  to  teach  a  part  of  all  the  many  pursuits,  but  it  is 
possible  to  teach  processes  which  are  the  best  for  them  all.  Thus  in  wood 
working,  we  do  not  give  a  detailed  \-iew  of  every  process  and  every  tool,  but 
we  give  a  thorough  training  in  the  principles,  and  facility  in  using  the  most 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing 


3J7 


Illustration  370 


important  tools.  A  pupil  ought  to  know  that  there  are  classes  of  tools,  and 
should  get  a  logical  understanding  of  the  use  and  possibilities  of  the  principal 
tools  in  each  class.  If  we  give  in.struction  in  a  great  variety  uf  tools,  we 
defeat  the  purpose  of  this  work.  The  tendency  to  teach  tools  instead  of 
processes  and  skill,  seems  to  be  universal.  W'e  must 
adhere  to  fuuflamentals.  we  must  teach  the  pu])ils 
to  discern  between  the  important  an<l  the  trivial, 
the  fundamental  and  the  accidental. 

Each  pu]iil  must  learn  tliat  the  tools  in  them- 
selves are  not  the  end,  but  only  the  means  with 
which  we  shape  ideas  or  concejits.  Ifence,  we 
should  acquire  early  such  control  over  tools  that 
our  attention  can  be  given  to  the  work  we  ha\e  to 
do  with  them,  instead  of  our  thoughts  being  direct- 
ed wholly  to  the  method  of  using  the  tools.  In 
other  words,  the  movements  with  tools  sliouid  be 
made  automatic  as  soon  as  possible,  just  as  in  draw- 
ing we  acquire  unconscious  control  over  the  mus- 
cles and  nerves  that  guide  chalk,  pencil  or  brush. 
It  is  only  when  we  have  obtained  this  automatic 
action  that  we  can  concentrate  our  entire  energy 
to  putting  thought  into  work. 

Put  Art  First.  — In  some  systems,  wood 
carving  is  taugiit  in  connection  with  joinery  and 
cabinet  making,  and  is  taught  in  the  same  mechani- 
cal fashion.  This  is  radically  u  rong.  Wood  carving 
is  as  distinct  from  woodwork  as  freeli;uid  drawing 
is  from  mechanical  drawing.  Wood  carving 
should  always  precede  cabinet  making,  and  be 
taught  in  connection  with  clay  modeling  and  free- 
hand drawing.  In  the  i)rinci])al  manual-training 
schools,  the  mechanical  product  is  given  chief  prominence,  and  such  work 
is  generally  good,  but  the  artistic  jiroduct  is  very  poor,  in  many  schools  re- 
ceiving no  recognition  at  all.  The  art  part,  which  is  the  vital  part  for  the 
young,  is  neglected  to  develop  mechanics.  Introduce  mechanical  work 
only  after  a  thorough    elementary    training    in    art    ;uiil    manual  dexterity. 


.MoiicI  of  Dixit. 

This  In  niudc  in  wood  and  Is 
divided  in  the  center  In  »liow 
contitrui-tinii.  The  Keetiunn  arc 
dowclled  iind  (it  tt>);etlu-r. 


3J8 


Various  Applications 


A.  Good  Teacher  is  of  more  consequence  than  good  tools.  The 
teacher  sliould  be  a  master  of  the  metliod  and  of  all  the  exercises  in  which 
he  assumes  to  instruct.       Too  frequently,  committees  and  others  think  a 

Illustration  380 


Uousu  Buikliiiij^ 

A  lesson  on  stjtirs.    The  house  is  the  result  of  tlie  combined  eflbrts  ot  four  boys.    Ai\  the  joints  in  the 
b:tckground  h;ive  been  made  by  the  pupils. 


skilled  mechanic  is  the  only  proper  instructor  in  this  branch  of  manual 
training-.  It  would  be  difficult  to  make  a  greater  mistake.  I  have  never 
known  a  carpenter  or  mechanic  able  to  teach  this  work  in  the  right  way. 
In  many  such  classes  the  boys  make  plenty  of  joints  and  enjoy  it  thoroughly, 
but  the  educational  value  of  the  work  is  lost  sight  of  and  the  mind  and  the 
hand  are  not  intimately  related  to  the  things,  facts  and  processes  of  life  as 
thev  should  be. 


Osnstruction  and  Mechanical  Drawings 


319 


If  a  true  teacher  is  taken,  liow  e\  er,  instead  of  a  nieclianic,  even  the  sub- 
jects of  ghie,  nails,  etc.,  will  be  made  an  avenue  for  much  fruitful  discussion 
and  instruction.  Every  point  will  be  made  of  interest,  and  its  connection  with 
other  phases  of  work  and  study  will  be  comprehended  by  the  pupil  so  that  he 
can  make  actual  use  of  his  knowledge.  Unless  the  exercises  are  correlated 
in  this  way  with  the  other  studies.  l)ench  work  has  no  business  in  the  schools. 

Our  Course  in  Mechanical  Draining  includes  the  ordinary  course 
in  most  schools,  the  study  of  mechanical  perspective,  and  of  the  architectural 


Illustration  381 


Wood  Wnrklnfp 
Pupil  applyini;  try  iquarc  tn  a  pUnnl  ■urfucc. 


stvles,  and  some  designs  an<l  CDUstructiun.  In  eilucatioii.  wlu-re  wc  luu^^t 
consider  the  development  of  the  esthetic  princi|)les.  as  well  as  the  practical 
elements,  such  a  course  will  be  found  more  instructive  than  the  usual  one- 


320 


Various  Applications 


sided  and  totally  mechanical  conrse.  The  teacher  should  stri\-e  to  give  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  principles  of  mechanical  drawing,  but  should 
not  enter  into  a  lengthv  and  detailed  discussion  of  machines. 


Illustration  382 


Apparatus  for  Various  School  Purposes 
The  boys  design  and  manufacture  considerable  of  the  laborator\-  and  other  apparatus  needed  in    the  school 
Such    work  is  not  allowed  at  the  expense  of  the  educational  object  of  this  training.    This  model  is  to  illustrate  the 
principle  of  the  incline  plane  and  the  principle  of  friction  in  physics. 


Parallel  and  angular  perspective  are  dwelt  upon  at  length,  architectural 
styles  are  similarly  treated,  and  architectural  design  and  construction  are 
discussed.  Our  object,  at  this  stage,  is  not  to  make  draftsmen  or  architects, 
but  to  open  up  the  minds  of  the  pupils  to  the  immense  possibilities  and  the 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing 


321 


intrinsic  lieaiity  of  the  suljject.  This  course  will  be  as  vahiahle  to  one 
desirins;  to  <Ievote  his  life  to  fine  art,  as  to  one  wlio  wishes  to  l)ecome  a 
mechanical  engineer,  an  architect,  draftsman,  farmer,  etc.,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  embraces  real  manual  training. 

Thus  far,  the  chief  attention  has  been  given  to  the  development  of  man- 
ual skill,  co-ordinated  with  eye-training  and  mind-culture,  and  to  the  study 
of  form,  historical  ornament,  the  use  of  water-colors,  and  charcoal,  etc. 
Now.  when  tlie  abstractions  included  in  projections,  sections.  <levelopments, 
shades  and  shadows,  and  angular  perspective,  are  dealt  witli.  it  is  surprising 
how  quickly  and  vividly  the  pujiils  will  com])rehcnd  tliese  subjects,  and  what 
freedom  and  breadth  they  will  exhibit  in  tlieir  renderings.     To  a  pupil  with- 

lllustration  383 


Mcchiinical  DniwiiiK 
DcmonstralinK  Ihc  principle  of  a  screw  and  »ho\vlni;  applicution  of  helix. 


out  this  previous  training,  a  mechanical  drawing  is  a  <Iead  object;  the 
execution  of  such  a  drawing  will  be  devoid  of  all  artistic  iicauty,  and  the 
condition  of  the  mind  of  the  i)upil  will,  generally,  be  at  a  still  lower  stage; 
thus  the  soul  and  the  imagination  arc  confined  and  restrained,  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  which  they  arc  capable  are  not  even  opened  to  view. 
21 


322  Various  Applications 

The  course  begins  witli  a  discussion  of  the  instruments.  One  of  the 
best  exercises,  and  one  whicli  brings  into  use  all  the  tools,  is  the  construction 
of  some  simple  frets  or  geometric  ornaments.  This  is  much  better  than  a 
simple  exercise  in  drawing  lines,  or  proceeding  at  once  with  some  geometri- 
cal problem,  or  working  drawing,  and  gives  freedom,  and  a  logical 
understanding  of  the  instruments  and  their  use. 

Geometric  problems  are  tlien  taken.  This  will  be  an  additional  exercise 
with  the  instruments.  Working  drawings  follow;  first,  of  a  very  simple 
nature,  neatness  and  accuracy  being  the  essentials  at  this  stage;  later,  more 
complex  figures  may  l:e  taken,  such  as  joints,  etc. 

Throughout  the  entire  course  there  is  every  opportunity  to  consider  the 
individuality  of  the  pupils.  When  the  teacher  is  discussing  any  subject,  the 
principle  should  be  made  prominent,  and  the  pupils  should  make  many  notes 
and  sketches.  Those  who  exhibit  more  aptitude,  should  make  more  com- 
plex  drawings.  In  this  way,  each  pujjil  may  make  a  different  drawing, — all, 
however,  showing  the  same  princij^le.  With  proper  management,  this  will 
not  conflict  with  the  necessary  uniformity  of  class  work. 

Isometrical  drawing,  the  simplest  mechanical  perspective,  is  taken  next. 
This  will  l)e  found  useful  in  illustrating  constructions,  projections,  ami  pene- 
trations. Sections  and  developments  follow  in  order.  The  choice  of 
particular  subjects  should  be  left  to  the  pupils  as  much  as  possible.  The 
teacher,  at  all  times,  should  exercise  the  greatest  care  anrl  discretion  in  the 
selection  of  typical  figures. 

Tjy  this  time  the  pupils  will  be  found  to  work  with  considerable  freedom 
and  insight  into  the  principles  involved,  and  will  be  ready  for  the  more 
advanced  exercises.  The  mechanical  units  are  now  taken,— screws,  nuts, 
propellers,  cams,  gears,  etc.  As  all  the  pupils  have  had  a  previous  experience 
in  w  ater-color  and  charcoal,  they  should,  at  various  intervals,  make  shaded  or 
colored  drawings.  Of  course,  too  much  time  must  not  be  consumed  in  this 
way.  The  class  should,  at  times,  get  some  practical  experience.  \'isits  to 
large  machine  shops  and  constructive  establishments  should  be  made;  in 
many  cities  there  are  abundant  opportunities  to  visit  large  industrial  plants, 
locomotive  and  electrical  macliine  factories,  and  shipyards,  etc.  These 
excursions  can  be  made  very  interesting  and  will  prove  highly  valuable  to 
the  students. 

Tracing  and  blue-printing  should  be  treated  at  the  best  opportunity. 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing 


323 


Shades  and  shadows,  parallel  and  angfiilar  perspective,  slimill  receive  a  great 
deal  of  attention,  as  they  are  \ahial)lc  educational  sniijects. 

Architecture  is  taken  next,  the  chief  aim  1  einp  to  give  a  good  under- 
standing of  styles,  and  their  characteristics.  This  is  a  most  valnaldc  study, 
for,  at  all  times,  the  character  of  a  period,  or  a  nation  is  eniI)odied  in  their 

llustration  584 


l-rt'chaiid  l*trs|>cctivc 
The  boys  arc  jrivcn  rrcqocnt  opportunity  to  muke  lar^c  drawings  in  perspective  as  alH»vc. 


huildings.  A  good  set  of  architectural  models  is  almost  indispensable  for 
this  work.  The  students  should  visit  ilitTerent  typical  buildings,  and  some 
lime  should  lie  spent  ir.  instructive  discussion.  Some  time  should  also  be 
given  to  planning  and  construction.  I'ujmIs  should  not  be  alloweti  to  make 
actual  copies  of  architectural  drawings,  or  plans  of  houses,  but  should  make 
original  ])lans  of  their  own,  iuNolving  individual  ideas.  N'o  matter  how 
crude  in  the  begimnng.  this  gives  them  concrete  ideas  an<l  experience.  The 
same  is  true  of  machine  drawing:  the  jjupils  should  not  be  alwa\s  copying 
drawings  of  machines,  often  beyond  their  comprehension,  —as  is  sometimes 
done, — but  should  work  at  principles,  on  simple  forms  which  thc\  fully 
understand,  and  that  are  ty|)ical.  Much  time  is  wasted  in  fancy  lettering, 
and  over  unnecessar\-  detail. 


324 


Various  Applications 


Blackboard  Work  should  be  carried  on  as  much  as  possible.  All  the 
pupils  in  the  constructive  departments  should  work  at  intervals  on  the  black- 
board. .All  the  ordinary  geometric  forms  and  simple  constructions  should 
be  drawn  full  size  and  freehand,  until  memorized.  Sketches  shoulfl  also  lie 
made  of  architectural  details,  plans  and  styles,  and  the  forms  should  be 
repeated  and  modified  many  times. 

The  full  benefits  of  such  a  course  can  l)e  bestowed  only  upon  pupils  who 
have  had    the    previous    elementary  art  training.        To  them,  the  artistic 

Illustration   385 


A  .Model  for  BuikUnj]^ 
Conslruction  showing  principles  of  "vaulting.* 


elements  will  appeal  as  much  as  the  practical  ones.  They  will  lea\-e  school 
with  their  minds  opened,  with  skilled  and  responsive  hands  and  e\es,  and 
with  a  develoj^ed  love  for  the  beautiful  and  the  true. 

The  teacher  is  as  yet  comparatively  rare  who  is  capable  of  givirtg  this 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing  325 

phase  of  rational  manual  traininj^f.  just  as  the  teachers  are  not  yet  numerous 
wiio  have  mastered  drawing  and  modeling  in  connection  with  school  work, 
but  the  sphere  for  such  teachers  is  large  and  increasing.  No  branch  of 
education  offers  so  fine  an  opportunity  for  teachers,  both  for  usefulness  and 
for  pecuniary  reward.  And  the  teacher  w  ho  masters  both  the  art  side  and 
the  mechanical  side  of  real  manual  training  will  have  the  still  wider  o])por- 
ttmity  that  awaits  the  real  master  in  any  i)rofession. 

In  Teaching  the  Mechanical  Side  >>{  nianual  training,  thorough  in- 
struction on  and  discussion  of  all  tools,  materials,  and  forms  made  should  be 
constant.  Nothing  should  be  taken  for  granted.  1  have  frc(|uently  seen 
boys  making  a  joint  or  piece  of  work  without  an  itelligent  idea  of  its  name, 
use  or  purpose,  and  this  is  also  true  in  regard  to  tools. 

Every  tool  should  be  explained  thoroughly  ami  its  use  ukkIo  manifest 
in  as  many  directions  as  possible.  Lessons  should  also  be  given  on  the 
various  woods  anil  materials  used  (glues,  varnishes,  nails,  etc.),  and  upon 
the  use  and  applications  of  the  constructions  made.  Upon  all  these  sub- 
jects, and  other  phases  of  the  work,  the  true  teacher  will  have  become  ihor- 
oughly  informed  by  actual  experience  mainly,  for  no  manual  or  text  book 
exists  or  can  be  written  that  will  take  the  place  of  the  knowle<lge  the  teacher 
will  ac(|uire  by  actually  doing  all  branches  of  the  work. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  course  should  contain  exercises  in 
making  the  principal  ty|)ical  forms.  Don't  attempt  too  many  forms,  or 
amateur  or  freak  forms, — a  weakness  in  other  methods.  This  error  is 
caused  bv  an  undue  desire  to  show  finished  product  ami  u.seful  articles. 
While  this  is  an  imi)ortant  factor,  it  should  not  dominate  the  desire  of  ob- 
taining the  greatest  amount  of  skill  and  training. 

Kach  pu])il  should  be  jjrovidetl  wiih  a  note  book  an<l  sketch  book,  in 
which  he  should  write  descriptions  of  the  tools  and  their  uses,  and  also  make 
rough  drawings  and  an  isometrical  view  of  each  exercise. 

The  Simpler  Exercises.  — .\fter  learning  the  manipulation  of  the 
most  important  tools  and  a])iiliances,  the  i)iipil  is  rea<ly  to  construct 
the  simpler  forms  of  joints— first,  the  plain  butt,  miter,  half  and  slip 
joints,  later  the  varieties  of  these.  These  exercises  are  all  very  valuable  an<l 
they  are  ideal  forms  at  this  stage.  It  is  not  necessary  that  each  pupd 
should  make  a  graded  series  or  even  one  of  each  of  these,  but  he  shi>ul  1  get 
a  thorough  understanding  of  them  all.        It   will  be  sufficient   if  he  m.ikes 


Plate  Twenty-seven 


Simple  and  Complex  Geometric  Models 

These  arc  models  which  mav  he  used  to  (jood  advanta^je  in  geomctrvand  drawinsc  lor  light  and  shade, 
and  in  mechanical  drawing:,  in  ttuchinji  intersections,  sections,  surface  development,  etc.  They  may  be 
reproduced  in  wood  hv  hand  work,  as  exercises  in  manual  training. 

(3^6) 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing  327 

three  or  four  of  ihe  joints— in  tliis  way  ilic  class  may  easily  be  treated  in- 
dividually. 

Another  feature  of  value  is  the  construction  of  peonielric  forms,  such 
as  cubes,  prisms,  cylinders,  cones,  etc.     (lllus.  386.)     The  simplest  of  tiiese 


Illustration  3^6 


\ 


1 


i^an' 


W'u.iJ  Wiirkitij;     t»ttimitrit  I'U.'iip 


These  jfcoinclric   forms   have  heen  nijldc  by  h.lnd  hy  the  l»ny«  withnul  lathefl.     They  are  inaile  to 
scale.    The  cone  is  made  in  several  sections  and  tits  to-^ether,  showing  Ihe  conic  sections. 


forms  are  taken — the  cube,  the  various  prisms,  the  cylinder  and  the  frus- 
trums.  These  forms  are  especially  valuable  as  exercises,  because  they  require 
logical  thinking  and  render  necessary  various  consecutive  steps  in  their 
construction,  as  well  as  yiekling  unusual  manual  skill.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  pupils  should  make  all  the  geometric  forms — a  few  of  the  type 
forms  made  to  accurate  scale  will  be  sutVicient. 

After  this  ])attern  making  may  1>«'  t.ik>ti  up.       P.eginning  with  .1  ilior- 


328 


Various  Applications 


ough  discussion  of  tlie  subject,  the  pupil  is  then  ready  to  construct  some 
simple  pattern,  such  as  wrench,  crank,  sledge  hammer,  head,  brace,  etc., 
a  few  samples  of  which  are  shown  in  the  initial  letter  on  page  305 

By  this  time  each  pupil  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  all  the  tools  and 


Illustration  387 


A  Lesson  in  Perspective 
A  scries  of  I'rumes  are  made  and  used  in  the  class  rooms  for  demonstrating  perspective  in  various  ways. 
The  object,  with  ground  plan  picture  plane  on  glass,  vanislring  lines,  point  of  sight,  etc.,  are  shown  in 
various  positions.    The  teacher  explaining  parts. 


processes,  and  has  some  general  experience.  .\t  various  stages  of  the 
course,  attention  should  be  given  to  sharpening  tools.  Pupils  should 
master  this  work,  without  which  the  best  tools  soon  become  useless. 

Advanced  Work. — Pupils  are  now  ready  to  take  up  the  more  ad- 
vanced exercises,  and  very  accurate  and  fine  work  mav  reasonablv  be  ex- 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing; 


329 


pected.  Next  in  order  may  he  taken  the  various  complex  joints,  such  as 
the  mortise,  dovetail,  brace  joints,  the  scarfs,  and  varieties  of  these.  Then 
advanced  geometric  forms  may  he  taken — pyramids,  cones,  grooved  cylin- 
ders, cone  in  sections,  etc.  (Page  326.)  Advanced  patterns  come  next, 
such  as  model  for  weight,  cast-iron  bracket,  riy  wheel,  and  parts  of  ma- 
chinery (Illus.  388). 

Illustration  388 


WcKxI  Working 

Thciic  ;in-  fonns  and  |.atli-ms  in  w<M>d  cut  by  h.ind  1<h>U  entirely  by  high  school  boys.    The  cone  show>  the 
conic  ncctions,  and  is  doweled  io  that  it  comes  apart. 


In  these  more  advanced  exercises  the  work  may  he  carried  on  in- 
dividually. Since  some  pupils  will  have  ac<|uired  unusual  skill,  they  ought 
to  make  elaborate  exercises.  Those  who  have  not  developed  so  readily 
should  be  given  exercises  best  suiteil  to  their  stage. 

The  greatest  skill  is  typified  in  ailvanced  construction.  This  eni- 
liraces  frames,  cabinets,  furniture,  sashes,  doors,  roof  trusses,  etc.  Some- 
times it  is  well  for  an  ailvanced  class  to  combine  in  constructing  some  large 
project,  such  as  a  frame  house  (page  30<;).  or  a  large  iiiecc  of  furniture,  simi- 
lar to  a  vestment  case  (page  jHj),  or  case  of  closets  for  museum,  or  book- 
cases, etc., — anything  suitable  for  school  purposes. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  every  piece  t)r  |)art  of  the  work  should  be  made 
by  the  boys.       Duplicate  parts  can  be  cut  out  at  the  mill,  turned  work,  if 


Plate  Twenty-eight 


r    '    ^        -f  ^ 


/■ 

^ 

L 

^  1  - 

\  ■ 

-    - . 

MODEL   FOO. 

CA5T-lgON  WElOhT 


WOOD-WOaX.     E>.tC!.Ci5E5 


Drawings  for  Wood  Working 


Working  drawings  of  typical  exercises,  one-fourth  actual  siEe.  Kach  pupil  makes  a  drawing  of  the  object  or  a 
sketch  thereof  in  his  note-book.  The  model  for  cast-iron  weight  is  to  be  cut  entirely  by  hand.  The  test-tube  rack,  to 
be  used  in  thechemistr\'  class  with  oihcr  apparatus,  is  made  by  the  boys.  The  advanced  geometric  forms,  shown  at 
bottom  to  the  right,  are  to  be  made  to  scale  without  the  use  of  machinery  or  lathe.  The  complex  joint  drawing 
shows  the  principle  of  the  mitre. 

{330) 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing; 


331 


required,  can  be  ordered:  doors  and  sashes  can  he  framed  by  machinery 
at  tlie  mill,  hut  all  tlie  draiiijiitin<j.  iletail  <lra\vin,i:;s,  tillintj  and  constructing 


Illustrations  389-394 


Complex  Mortise  aiitl  Ttiinii  Joint 
Complex  Morline  and  Tenon  Joint 
Mortise  Slip  Joint 


Dovetail  Joint 
Mortiftc  and  'I'enftn 
Halved   Dovetail 


can  readily  he  done  l>y  tlie  l)i)ys  in  a  class  of  this  kiml.  Xcarly  all  the 
elaborate  apparatus  in  wood  used  in  teaching  i)hysics  can  l)c  made  In  the 
hoys  in  a  class  of  this  character,  ami  also  many  useful  things  reiiuiretl  in 
laboratories. 


332  Various  Applications 


WOOD-WORKING  COURSE. 

I.  Use  of  tools  and  methods. 

Tools — Rip  saw.  cross-cut  saw.  Jack  plane,  smooth  plane.  Try  square, 

gauge. 
Squaring  to  right  dimensions. 
Working  with  scribe  knife,  block  plane,  back  saw. 
Beveling  with  plane. 
.Sandpapering. 

2.  Simple  joints. 

Butt  joint,  miter  joint,  half  joint,  slip  joint,  \arieties. 
Laying  out  work — Gluing  and  clamping. 
Use  of  bevels,  chisels  and  chalk. 

3.  Sharpening  tools. 

Grinding,  slip  stones,  shellac,  alcohol,  glue,  varnish. 

4.  Simple  geometric  forms. 

Cube,    square  prism,    he.xagonal  prism,    octagonal  prism,    cylinder. 
Use  of  compasses,  planing  round,  etc. 

5.  Simple  constructions. 

Frame,  wall  liracket,  brace,  bo.x,  etc. 

Brace  and  bit,  nailing,  firmer  gauges,  scraper. 

6.  Easy  exercises  in  pattern  making. 

Sledge  hammer,  wrench,  crank,  bracket,  quoit,  grate  and  other  sim- 
ple exercises. 

7.  Comple'x  joints. 

Mortise  joint,  dovetail  joint,  brace  joint,  varieties  of  these. 

8.  Advanced  geometric  forms. 

Pyramids,  square  hexagonal  and  octagonal,  cone  and  frustrum. 
Cylinder  with  grooves,  cone  in  sections. 

9.  Pattern  making. 

Fly  wheel,  weights,  cams.       Details  of  machinery. 
10.  Advanced  constructions. 

Brace,  roof  trusses,  bridges,  doors,  frames,  frame  house,  furniture. 


Plate  Twenty-nine 


r.   3 

y  -I 


5"  n 


?-^ 


'.j  D 


.3= 


^3 


C7 

r- 

l< 

H 

?a 
m 

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P> 
o 


334 


Various  Applications 


Tools  for   Wood-Working  Department. — Equipment  for  a  class  of 


Uventy  pupils: 

20  benches 

20  iron  smooth  planes 

20  wooden  jack  planes 

20  iron  l:)lock  planes 

20  back  saws 

20  nail  hammers 

20  try  squares 

20  marking  gauges 

20  scrilje  knives 

20  bevels, 

20  screw  drivers 

20  mallets 

20  oil-stones 

20  steel  oilers 

20  rules 

20  bench  hooks 

20  dust  brushes 

2  cross-cut  saws 

2    rip  saws 

2  turning  saw  frames 

2  keyhole  saw  pads 

4  doz.  turning  saws 

1  doz.  keyhole  saws 

\  doz.  firmer  chisels,  J  to  i  inch 
-J  doz.  firmer  gauges,  \  to  i  inch 
i  doz.  spoke  shaves 
\  doz.  rabbet  planes 
^  doz.  carpenter's  pincers 

2  doz.  saw  files 


\  doz.  compasses 

1  combination  plane 

2  bit  braces 

2  auger  bits,  each  ],  f ,  ^,  f  inch 
I   doz.  German  bits 

i  doz.  center  bits 

3  doz.  rose  countersinks 
Large  iron  square 

I   grindstone 
I   set  slip  stones 
I  panel  gauge 
I  trammel 

doz.  files 

doz.  cabinet  scrapers 

hatchet 

doz.  brad  awls  and  nail  punches 
Glue  pot  and  furnace 
Shellac  and  alcohol 
Lamp  black 
Sperm  oil 
Chalk 

Paint  brushes 
Sandpaper 
Four  trusses 
Blackboards 
Closets 

3  doz.  handscrews 
Woods:  White  pine,  poplar,  cher- 
ry, mahogany,  pear,  walnut. 


«  Si 


r2  2 


K  = 


^? 

0 

r 

2 

2 

s 

R 

(/) 

^ 

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336 


Various  Applications 


COURSE  IN  MECHANICAL  DRAWING. 

Scales,  T  and  set  squares  used  in  constructing  simple  geometric  ornaments 
or  frets — 'later  the  compasses.      Inking  and   drawing.      Erasing  and 


cleaning. 


I — Use  of  tools 
II — Geometric  problems 
III — Working  drawings 
IV — Isometric  drawings 
V — Projections 
VI — Penetrations 
VII — Sections 


VIII — Developments 
IX — Screws,  cams,  gears,  etc 
X — Tracing  and  Ijlue  printing 
XI — Shades  and  shadows 
XII — Parallel  perspective 
XIII — Angular  perspective 
XIV — Architecture 


EQUIPMENT  REQUIRED 

Twenty  sets  of  instruments,  including  divider  with  pen,  pencil,  and 
needle-point  parts  and  lengthening  bar,  a  plain  divider,  steel  bow  pencils  and 
steel  bow  pen.  ruling  pen  with  joint,  box  with  leads. 


20  adjustable  drawing  tables 

20  drawing  boards!  20x26 

20  T  squares 

20  set  squares,  45  deg.  7  inches 

20  set  squares,  60  deg.  9  inches 

20  triangular  scales 

20  bottles  India  ink,  black 

20  bottles  India  ink,  blue 

20  bottles  India  ink,  red 

Portfolios,  frames,  water  colors,  etc. 


40  tmtmg  saucers 

40  brushes 

20  note  books 

Pencils,  grade  H.  H. 

Drawing  paper,  17x24 

20  dusting  brushes 

Thumb  tacks 

Pencil  and  ink  rubbers 

Tracing  cloth,  l>lue  printing  outfit 


Exercises  in  Metal  Work  are  prominent  in  some  mamial-training 
schools.  Usually  these  exercises  consist  for  a  few  terms  of  portions 
of  the  work  of  machine  shop  and  the  blacksmith  shop — a  little  chipping, 
filing  and  fitting;  molding  and  casting,  forging  and  welding,  ornamental 
ironwork  and  tinsmithing  and  perhaps  plumbing.  Later  on  the  opera- 
tions consists  of  machine-tool  practice.  \\h\\  the  exception  of  wrought- 
iron  work,  which  readilv  lends  itself  to  ornamental  and  artistic  treatment. 


Construction  and  Mechanical  Drawing 


337 


such  work  is  entirely  mechanical.  No  artistic  work  is  attempted,  the  aes- 
thetic idea  is  entirely  wanting.  Carefully  graded  forms  are  used,  and  the 
patterns  and  exercises  of  one  manual-training  school  can  usually  be  found  in 
almost  every  other.  Even  the  forms  made  in  tinsmithing  are  nearly  all  alike. 
E.xperience  with  a  variety  of  these  operations  leads  me  to  believe  that 
the  proper  j)lace  for  most  of  such  work  in  metal  is  in  the  trade  schools. 
At  most  of  the  manual-training  schools  the  authorities  themselves  will  state 
that  '■  no  trades  are  taught."  Why  then  give  portions  of  trade  operations 
when  fundamentals  should  or  could  be  taught?  If  the  work  is  given  for 
its  educational  value,  this  should  be  done.  .\  large  part  of  the  educational 
value  is  secured  in  the  construction  course  just  given  in  brief.  The  opera- 
tions that  are  not  thus  covered  are  mainly  of  a  trade  character,  rather  than 
educational  in  their  function.  In  many  manual-training  schools  the  present 
tendency  is  to  build  steam  engines,  dynamos,  bicycles,  etc.  Too  many  boys 
are  spoiled  and  too  much  energy  is  thus  wasted.  I  have  known  all  indi- 
vidual and  educational  efforts  of  pupils  and  teachers  of  an  entire  school  to 
be  wasted  for  a  term  this  way.  Much  more  attention  should  be  given  in 
manual-training  schools  to  the  artistic  use  of  various  metals,  in  wrought-iron, 
in  brass,  in  molding  an<l  casting,  in  forging  and  hammered  work. 


z 

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o  > 


a 


CHAPTER  II 


Illustration  396 


Gjrrdation  of  Drawing; 
With  Other  Studies 


Lenmio^  "  Hard  "  Words  by  Jllustratin)^  tiiuir  McaiuiiL; 


FF.W  OF  THF  MAXIFOLI) 
ways  in  wliicli  art  can  he  eni- 
|)l()ycil  as  an  indispensable  aid  in 
education  liave  been  suggested  in 
tlie  preceding  l)ooks  of  this  work. 
One  object  therein  has  been  to 
ilenionstrate  the  inrinence  of  art 
nietiiods  as  an  energizing  power 
in  forming  a  disposition  and  habit 
of  work  witli  mind  and  bo<ly,  and  as  a  means  of  exahing  and  enlarging  tlie 
mind  by  enabling  one  to  [)erceive  beauty.  Besides  this,  liowever.  art  is  one  of 
the  most  valuai)lc  instruments,  if  not  the  most  \a!ual)ie,  for  co-ordinating  va- 
rious memories  an<l  ideas  on  all  subjects.  It  lieljjs  to  imify  and  solidify  various 
partial  ideas  and  nebulous  fancies  that  are  always  floating  .ibout  in  the  mind 
of  the  young,  and  enables  them  to  grasp,  ai)prehend  ami  use  these  ideas  with 
the  least  physical  and  nervous  wear  ami  tear,  and  with  least  loss  of  energy. 

Every  intelligent  reader  will  recognize  the  wonderful  value  of  <lrawing 
when  so  taught  as  to  really  enable  the  young  tn  draw  as  a  mode  of  express- 
ing thought.  .\11  must  admit  that  a  picture  presents  a  subject  capable  of 
illustration  far  more  forcibly  than  nu-re  words.  One  who  accurately  draws 
a  bird,  or  a  skeleton,  or  a  tlower,  or  a  mathematical  |)rohleni.  has  a  more  com- 
plete mastery  of  that  special  to])ic  than  could  be  gained  in  almost  any  other 

(m) 


340  Various  Applications 

way.  Proper  drawing  being  a  mode  of  expression,  it  atYords  simply  another 
channel  for  making  a  more  vivid  and  permanent  impression.  In  practically 
every  branch  of  study,  the  power  to  graphically  and  accurately  illustrate  and 
to  model  the  forms  will  lie  a  great  help  in  the  acquirement  of  knowledge  and 
in  the  mental,  moral  and  physical  development  that  are  the  real  objects  of 
education.  No  one  capacity-  is  more  valuable  than  the  power  to  steadily 
persevere  or  persist  at  work  not  in  itself  very  attractive.  This  kind  of  self- 
control  and  self-reliance  is  especially  the  product  of  right  art  work  ami  real 
manual  training. 

No  joy  is  greater  or  more  lasting  than  the  power  that  comes  from  per- 
ceiving the  beauty  and  spirit  of  all  nature.  This  is  also  one  of  the  results  of 
art  work.  A  thoughtful  reading  of  First  Principles  will  emphasize  these 
statements  so  con\-incingly  as  to  obviate  further  discussion  here  of  this  par- 
ticular pi)int. 

One  Trouble  ivith  the  Old  Methods  of  education  is  that  they 
fail  to  iix  details  and  facts  clearly  and  distinctly  in  the  mind,  so  that  they  shall 
be  permanentl}-  registered  in  the  lirain,  \\here  they  can  be  called  upon  when 
needed.  }^lany  people  retain  cloudy  and  indistinct  ideas  of  facts  that  they 
learned  at  school  or  from  books,  but  seldom  forget  what  they  have  learned 
in  their  business  or  household  work  by  actually  doing  and  by  experience. 
No  one  can  know  how  to  really  make  bread  except  by  actuall}-  mixing  and 
baking  it;  once  this  is  mastered,  the  knowledge  is  never  forgotten.  Ju.st  so 
the  doing  will  make  other  facts  and  methods  permanent  in  mind  and  hand.* 
This  "doing"  will  register  permanently  the  essential  details  of  desired  facts 
and  processes  that  constitute  the  very  essence  of  wisdom,  which  is  "knowl- 
edge and  the  capacity  to  use  it." 


*  Education  consists  fund.imentallv  in  tlie  associ.ltion  of  certain  definite  sensory  currents,  excited  by  external 
impressions,  with  certain  definite  motor  currents,  which  are  the  adapted  reactions  of  the  individual  to  the  impres- 
iiions  which  affect  him.  No  wonder  then  that  we  find  so  much  automatic  action  when  we  look  closely  in  to  the  mental 
processes  of  men;  the  whole  aim  of  education  on  the  part  ot  one  generation  being  to  produce  upon  the  next  generation 
the  same  impressions  which  it  has  experienced,  and  to  teach  the  same  reactions  which  it  has  performed.  It  is  most 
necessar\',  however,  to  guard  against  the  strong  disposition  which  there  is  to  iook  upon  certain  movements,  those 
of  the  eye  and  the  tongue,  as  having  a  special  connection  with  the  mental  life  which  other  movem-.nts  of  the  body 
have  not;  they  have  .a  specially  intimate  connection,  but  not  a  special  kind  of  connection.  Unwarrantably  separating 
by  an  absolute  barrier  the  mind  from  the  body,  and  then  locating  it  in  a  particular  corner  of  the  latter,  as  is  commonly 
done,  we  are  prone  to  forget  that  in  mental  action  the  whole  bodily  life  is  comprehended— that  what  is  dis,.layed  out- 
"wardly  exists  in  the  innermost — that  every  motor  intuition  has  its  essenti;*!  j)lace  and  influence  in  our  mental  life. 
[Maudsley,  Physiology  of  the  Mind,  pages  470-471.) 


Correlation  of  Art  Methods 


341 


Correlation  of  Art  Methods.  -We  tln.s  sec  that  proper  correlation 
of  art  aiul  manual  training  nKiiio.ls  with  the  various  stiulies  is  one  of  the 
problems  of  the  new  education.     It  is  hard  to  resist  discussing  here  the  best 

Illustration  397 


Learning  Facts  by  Otaw  i\^  Them 

1  he  vi»unl  memory  is  stored  with  Ihe  actual  hhiipc,  Htructtire,  and  detuiU  of  fuiniliur  ol»ji-ct!»  and  the^■  can  be 
more  readily  remembered  and  named  by  drawinj^.     We  correlate  theory ani  practize. 


methods  for  fully  securing  this  correlation,  but  a  volume  would  ))e  retjuircd 
for  each  phase  of  the  sul)ject.  Some  suggestions,  however,  are  given  that 
should  j)rove  useful  to  teacher  and  pupil  alike.  The  work  is  being  success- 
fully done  in  some  schools  and  in  time  will  come  into  general  use  l>ecau>c  it 
is  right. 

This  union  of  study  an<!  "doing"  imparts  valuable  <|ualilics  to  the  chil- 
dren. It  improves  their  character  ami  capacity,  while  avoiiling  much  of  the 
evils  (jf  the  old  cramming  process,  and  at  the  same  time  r..ii>-iT>  fv  \i..iir  .iT 
min<l  and  health  of  bodv. 


342 


Various  Applications 


In  Language  Study,  drawing  and  modeling  have  a  leading  place. 
The  meaning  of  man}'  important  words,  their  correct  spelling  and  pronun- 
ciation, when  and  liow  to  use  them    correctly,    can  be  fixed  in  the  mind  h}' 

Illustration  398 


ArcIiitLctur.tl  Styles 

The  disposition  of  ;i  cohinni  and  its  component  parts,  and  of  the  entaljlature  resting^  upon  it,  the  various  orders 
in  architecture,  the  names  of  the  parts,  and  many  otiier  correhitions  are  more  tirmly  fixed  in  the  mind  by  drawing. 


drawing  the  objects  the  words  represent,  by  modeling  them,  if  necessary,  and 
by  discussion  and  thought  about  them.  When  the  mind  is  busy  guiding  the 
hand  that  is  fashioning  or  forming  concrete  ideas  in  actual  things,  there  is 
formed  an  energetic  and  cheerful  feeling,  and  a  desire  to  give  utterance 
thereto.  The  good  teacher  will  make  use  of  these  feelings  and  emotions  in 
getting  this  good  utterance  and  delivery. 

This  is  especially  true  of  so-called  "hard  words"  and  technical  terms. 
For  instance,  let  a  child  draw  and  model  a  stalactite  and  a  stalagmite,  as  illus- 
trated in  396  and  learn  what  it  can  about  these  objects  while  doing  this  work, 


Correlation  of  Art  Methods 


343 


and  it  will  never  forget  the  meaning  of  the  words  or  of  the  geological  phe- 
nomena they  represent.  These  and  many  other  words  rif  similar  ch.aracter 
shoulil  he  used  with  lliienc}-  and  ease  hy  the  pupils.  Tlii;;  can  seldom  he  as 
long  as  the  words  are  not  firmly  lockeil  in  the  mind  hy  action  and  niatle 
autoiuatic  l;y  repetition.  Along  with  such  drawing  or  modeling  will  go 
work  of  great  interest  to  the  pupils  in  the  way  of  writing,  spelling.  coni])osi- 
tion,  etc.  ahout  the  suhjects  in  hand.  These  elementary  studies,  hy  them- 
selves unattractive,  when  thus  correlateil  with  drawing  or  modeling,  take  on 
a  new  interest,  and  Ijy  what  may  he  termed  working  eN])erience  the  chihlren 

Illustration  399 


Com'tuliiin  of  Stuilic* 
Hy  dniwinf;  wc  correlate  various  school  studies  with  /.oology,  including  clji>«ilKali.>ii,  h.il.il«,  •  li.ir.icliri«li.  «  and 
di^trihulion  of  aniniaU,  living  and  extinct. 


readily  fix  in  the  mind  a  hetter  knowledge  than  can  he  acquired  hy  a  longer 
period  of  more  nerve-wearing  stmly  hy  ahstract  methods. 

For  Learning  Technical  Terms,    no  method  is  more  fascinating  or 
more  thorough.      How  lew  .idulis.  much  less  children,  recognize  the  names 


344  Various  Applications 

of  even  the  component  parts  of  so  common  an  object  as  a  door  ( Illus.  396), 
yet  when  tlie  cliikl  has  th"i\\n  this  object  freehand  and  printed  against  each 
part  its  proper  name,  and  associated  these  names  with  the  real  door  in  its 
mind,  these  terms  are  fixed  in  tlie  mcmor}-  tlirongh  the  comliined  senses  of 
touch,  siglTt,  hearing  and  speecli. 

It  siiouid  l)e  remembered  tliat  this  work  must  1:ie  done  constantly,  not 
from  a  few  things  onl_\ ,  at  long  intervals.  The  habit  must  be  formed  by  actiivi, 
of  clearly  seeing,  knowing  and  naming  the  essentials  of  environment.  When 
the  mind  can  impel  the  hand,  as  well  as  the  tongue,  to  clearl}'  and  distinctly 
express  form  with  a  few  fine,  strong  lines,  it  means  a  stronger  and  better 
mental  fabric. 

Very  few  people  can  recall  the  shape  of  ordinary  doors  or  windows.  Of 
course  every  one  has  a  partial  idea  of  the  shape,  but  few  can  distinctly  recall 
and  put  down  the  variety  of  common  window  forms,  as  seen  in  Illus.  397. 
This  power  to  retain  visual  impression  is  of  supreme  value  in  an}-  walk  of  life, 
and  is  readily  acquired  l)y  children. 

\\'hen  the  pupil  can  delineate  various  architectural  forms,  the  orders 
and  styles  (Illus.  398),  and  knows  the  names  of  the  various  parts  with  the 
related  ideas,  many  similar  forms  can  he  drawn  and  enjoyed,  and  the  mind 
becomes  able  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  a  wide  range  of  beautiful  forms.  For 
want  of  such  training,  few  get  the  pleasure  and  satisfaction  that  architecture 
is  able  to  give,  as  exhibited  in  fine  examples.  All  these  forms  should  be 
drawn  without  the  ruler  or  without  measurements,  as  these  pictures  have 
been  made. 

It  is  needless  to  mention  that  many  of  the  forms  in  botany,  zoology, 
geology,  mineralogy,  etc.,  can  l)e  drawn  and  memorized.  In  the  accom- 
panying picture  of  the  spider,  the  form  has  been  studied  and  the  various 
parts  memorized  with  a  variety  of  other  forms  of  spiders. 

Qualifying  Ndtnes  and  special  groups  of  animal  forms  can  l)e  memo- 
rized and  drawn,  as  in  illus.  399.  All  the  characteristic  features  of  the  families 
can  be  illustrated.  Some  of  the  pictures  illustrated  in  this  work  have  been 
taken  and  memorized  from  the  dictionary.  Original  sketches  from  the 
objects  also  be  made  and  are  much  better,  but  the  prints  are  also  good. 

Excellent  pictures  can  be  made  from  ])hotographs,  etchings,  prints  anil  from 
sketches.  Great  artists  of  all  periods  have  frequently  drawn  from  the  flat 
It  is  the  abuse  of  flat  copying,  not  the  use  of  it,  to  which  I  object. 


Correlation  of  Art  Methods 


345 


For  Nature  Study  we  use  drawing  as  a  mode  of  expression,  the  in- 
stninicMU,  or  one  ol  ihc  instrumentalities,  wherehy  we  remler  more  vivid  tlie 
impression  on  tlie  mind  of  outward  plienomena  through  the  toucli.  muscular 
sense  and  vision.     The  slightest  diagram  or  mark  then  reinforces  the  impres- 


niustration  400 


Itiulogy 
■When  these  forms  can  be  drawn  from  memory,  Ihe  technical  names,  the  various    processe*  and  facts, 
:tnd  the  visual,  auditory  and  tactual  inipressi<ms  thcretif,  are  more  firmly  placed  in  the  mental  fabric. 


sion.  It  is  well  known  that  if  we  write  a  name  or  a  luimher  we  tlo  not  forget 
it  quite  so  readily,  and  to  co-ordinate  many  impressions  ami  memories  hy 
drawing  or  modeling  is  one  of  the  valuable  ajjpiications  of  art  and  hand  work 
in  the  schools.  To  my  mind  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  uses  of  art  — 
to  help  l>uild  minds  on  the  mighty  foundation  that  nature  furnishes.* 


•  "Kvery  instrument,  tool,  vessel,  if  it  d<»cs  that  for  which  it  has  lH*cn  made,  is  well,  and  yet  he  who  made  it  is 
not  there.  But  in  the  things  which  are  held  louelher  hy  Nature  there  is  within  and  there  ahidrs  in  them  Ihe  iHiwer 
which  made  them;  wherefore  the  more  is  it  fit  t"  reverence  this  power,  and  to  think,  that  if  tliou  d"»l  live  and  act 
according'  to  its  will,  evcrythini;  in  thee  i*  in  conformity  to  inlelliKrnce.  And  thus  also  in  the  universe,  the  thin|{< 
Trhich  belong  to  it  are  in  conformity  to  intelligence."— [Marcus  .Vurelius  Anttmius. 


346  Various  Applications 

Application   of  Dra'wing   to    Elementary   Science  Work.—Tht 

series  of  illustrations,  I'lates  Seven,  Tliirt\-one,  Thirt\'-t\vo  and  Twenty-five, 
are  sim]:)Iy  suggesti\e  of  the  application  of  hand  work  and  drawing  to  the 
\'arious  departments  of  study.  Tiiey  are  made  by  pupils  who  have  had 
elementary  art  and  manual  training  from  their  earliest  school  period.  These 
pupils  do  not  approach  this  work  as  beginners,  1:)ut  as  children  who  have 
already  good  powers  of  delineation  developed  by  manual  training.  They 
draw  as  a  mode  of  thought  expression,  and  their  hands  are  already  suffi- 
ciently skilled  to  perform  difficult  and  complex  movements  in  technical 
work. 

Botdny. — In  plate  Thirty-one,  one  pupil  is  dissecting  the  plant 
and  preparing  a  portion  for  the  microscope.  The  other  pupil  is  delineating 
views  of  the  sweet  pea  and  its  different  parts.  The  pupils  are  working 
together  and  frequently  change  places.  To  work  the  compound  micro- 
scope, especially  when  using  the  high  power  lenses,  requires  a  great  deal  of 
skill.  It  can  be  readily  done,  however,  by  children  who  have  had  the 
pro])er  training. 

To  delineate  the  various  fields  of  view  is  also  within  their  power.  It  is 
a  great  advantage  to  have  children  grow  into  this  capacity.  The  most  diffi- 
cult operations  are  approached  by  them  not  as  difficulties,  but  as  pleasurable 
exercises  for  their  skill  and  ingenuity,  that  offer  them  full  reward  when  the 
work  is  accomplished.  I  am  well  aware  that  some,  in  looking  at  these  pic- 
tures, will  raise  the  objection  that  these  methods  are  not  possible  for  all  chil- 
dren. These  suggestions  then  are  for  the  few  who  may  be  so  fortunate,  if 
parents  and  teachers  are  wise  enough,  to  work  in  this  way. 

I  am  one  of  the  teachers  who  do  not  believe  that  it  is  neces.sary  for 
children  to  try  to  assimilate  the  whole  series  of  connected  facts  on  certain 
topics.  In  the  study  of  botany,  as  illustrated,  1  would  rather  they  should 
thoroughly  know,  in  its  relations  and  associations,  one  leaf  or  flower  in  its 
various  parts  and  structure,  visible  and  invisible;  that  they  should  thoroughly 
com])rehend  and  apprehend  the  mystery  that  is  embodied  in  its  form,  struc- 
ture and  texture;  that  they  should  get  a  glimmer  or  a  gleam  of  the  marvel 
and  splendor  of  its  colors  when  seen  by  the  naked  eye  or  when  exhibited  by 
the  microscope,  a  new  world,  as  it  were,  in  their  hands, — than  that  they 
should  have  a  partial  knowledge  of  the  whole  botanical  field. 

These  radical  ideas  will  be  combated  in  manv  directions,  but  neverthe- 


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348  Various  Applications 

less,  I  think  it  of  supreme  importance  to  thoroughly  impress  children  in  this 
way.  They  have  their  whole  future  life  in  which  to  accumulate  and  to 
assimilate  knowledge  of  the  many  dilTerent  subjects.  To  give  them  this  dis- 
cursive view  in  the  beginning,  without  the  love  and  reverence  that  come 
from  a  thorough  appreciation  of  a  few  forms  intimately  and  organically 
known,  is  futile.  The  wise  teacher  can  teach  an  everlasting  lesson  from  one 
fact.  It  is  better  to  do  this  than  to  give  so  many  that  the  children  are  men- 
tally stultitied.  No  thinking  person  can  imagine  more  fascinating  or  interest- 
ing lessons  than  can  be  given  on  the  endless  facts  from  plants  and  flowers, 
their  structure,  distribution,  habits,  use,  etc.,  unless  they  are  the  lessons  that 
can  be  received  from  the  other  elementary  science  studies,  in  mineralogy,  in 
geology,  zoology,  or  in  any  department  of  biology,  with  all  its  beauties,  mys- 
teries and  lessons.  It  is  a  simple  matter  of  introducing  the  child  to  a 
new  heaven,  where  the  mental  horizon  extends  in  all  directions,  exposing 
worlds  of  ideas  to  l)e  conquered.  Few  teachers  consider  the  size  of  a  child's 
mind  or  trv  to  enter  its  chaml)ers:  until  this  is  done  little  progress  can  be 
made.  In  the  elementary  stages  of  education,  the  child's  mind  should  not 
be  filled  with  information  or  facts  from  words  or  print,  because  this  tends 
to  satisfy  it  and  stultifies  it  and  prevents  the  impulse  to  action  so  energetic  in 
the  beginning.  Rather,  it  should  be  made  more  curious  or  inquisitive,  more 
eager  and  earnest  to  attend,  to  admire,  to  act.* 

Bla.ckboa.rd  Work, — At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  it  is  important 
to  allow  the  children  to  draw  as  much  as  possible  from  foliage,  as  in  illustra- 
tion 229  on  page  166.  Single  leaves  should  be  drawn,  groups  of  leaves, 
and  even  sprays.  The  first  sketches  should  embody  as  much  detail  and 
anatomy  of  the  leaf  as  possible,  and  then  sketches  can  be  made  showing  ar- 
rangements. The  real  leaf  or  spray  of  leaves,  or  branch,  can  be  held  in  the 
hand,  and  with  very  little  practice,  single  leaves,  groups  of  leaves  and  sprays 
can  be  drawn.  The  forms  must  be  studied  thoroughly  and  the  character  of 
the  leaves  embodied.  As  soon  as  a  few  careful  studies  are  made  in  this  way, 
then  the  form  should  be  memorized  and  the  piq)il  should  attempt  to  draw 


•  For  discipline,  as  well  as  for  guidance,  science  is  ofcliiefest  value.  In  all  its  effects,  learning  the  iceaaingoi 
things  is  hrttcr  th;m  learning  the  meaning  of  words.  Whether  for  intellectual,  moral  or  relisfious  training,  the  study 
of  surrounding  phenomena  is  immcnselv  superior  to  the  study  of  grammars  and  lexicons. — [Spencer. 


G>rrelation  of  Art  Methods 


349 


them  without  the  leaves.  Do  not  attempt  complex  arrangements  of  leaves 
or  sprays,  until  the  character  of  the  single  leaf  has  been  thoroughly  prac- 
ticed.    Draw  the  single  leaf  a  number  of  times  tirst. 

The  morning-glory  leaf,  the  clover  leaf,  the  birch  leaf  and  a  number  of 
others  are  comparatively  simple.  They  should  be  thoroughly  memorized 
and  the  essential  features  grasped,  then  more  complex  leaves,  like  the  maple 
leaf,  the  horse-chestnut  leaf,  the  buttercuj)  leaf,  and  so  on,  should  be 
practiced. 

Many  of  the  most  familiar  and  most    interesting    plains    spring  from 

lllustratinn    jni 


.NKniury  Drawing'  nT  lCtciiH'iil.iry  llotuiiy 


seeds.  The  children  should  be  taught  to  draw  the  forms  and  sluily  the 
structure  of  a  few  important  see<ls.  They  should  then  sprout  them  and 
watch  the  development  of  the  plantlet  from  the  seed.  Drawings  of  the 
seed,  the  sjirfxitlet  seed,  and  of  the  plantlet  in  its  successive  stages  of  develop- 
ment should  be  made  from  day  to  day.  Characteristic  details  of  any  parts 
should  also  be  drawn.     After  a  few  lessons  of  this  kind  the  children  should 


350  Various  Applications 

he  alile  to  represent  without  tlie  ohjects  the  various  seeds  and  plantlets,  sucli 
as  peas,  l:)eans,  etc..  and  he  familiar  with  the  names  of  tlie  (hfferenc  parts. 

Experiments  can  be  made  to  show  absorption  of  water  by  seeds,  force 
exerted  by  expansion  of  seeds  when  soaked,  also  to  show  the  efTect  of  tem- 
perature on  the  germination  of  seeds,  etTect  of  light  and  darkness,  of  water 
and  of  carbon-dioxide,  etc.  By  experiments,  children  can  see  whether 
heat  is  given  o(i  in  germination,  they  can  show  the  use  of  the  cotyledons  to 
the  plantlet.  and  drawings,  notes  and  diagrams  can  be  made  at  stages  of 
the  work. 

Children  should  beccMiie  interested  in  and  draw  the  structure  of  roots 
and  their  various  forms,  with  the  manner  in  which  sap  ascends  and  with  the 
way  that  the  roots  grow.  They  should  watch,  draw  and  make  diagrams  of 
the  way  roots  spring  from  cuttings  placed  in  water,  and  should  observe  and 
draw  the  various  aerial  roots.  All  this  is  far  more  simply  done  than  would 
ap]}ear  from  these  words  bv  children  who  ha\e  accpiired  the  habit  of  seeing 
and  doing  through  the  methods  described  in  Books  Two,  Three  and  Four. 

Many  kinds  of  tlowers  can  be  drawn  to  advantage  on  the  blackboard 
in  this  way  at  certain  seasons,  .\pple  blossoms,  cherry  blossoms,  can  be 
provided.  Children  can  bring  a  great  variety  of  flowers  into  school.  Not 
only  the  flowers  can  be  drawn,  but  also  the  ])arts  of  the  llower,  as  calyx, 
corolla,  jaistil.  stamens,  etc.  When  the  children  have  seen  the  parts,  have 
been  given  their  names  with  the  derivation,  and  have  drawn  the  parts  and 
written  the  names  against  each  ])art.  the  ideas  become  firmly  fixed  in  their 
minds.  This  makes  nature  study  douMy  interesting  to  children.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  new  facts  is  interesting  in  itself,  and  when  children  can  repre- 
sent the  new  ideas  obtained  from  objects  l)y  means  of  proper  drawing,  the 
study  has  an  added  value  and  interest. 

When  flowers  are  not  available,  the  work  need  not  cease,  for 
leaves  may  be  found.  It  is  \cry  good  practice  in  the  winter  to  use  even 
pressed  leaves.  The  ma])le.  ivy.  horse-chestnut,  and  a  number  of  others  are 
always  good  practice,  and.  if  pro])erly  pressed,  retain  their  color  for  several 
seasons.     They  afford  fine  specimens  for  color  work  in  winter. 

Children  should  be  encouraged  to  draw  as  much  as  possible  on  the 
blackboard  from  the  natural  form.  It  gives  a  free,  bold  st_\le  that  is  very 
useful.      If  they  have  had  the  ])reliminary  training  and  drill  work,  any  forms 


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352  Various  Applications 

they  enjoy  should  be  used,  and  especially  the  memory  work,  or  recalling  of 
visual  im])ressions. 

Elementary  Mineralogy. — Plate  Tliirty-seven  represents  one  pupil 
examining  a  fragment  of  quartz,  and  another  preparing  a  slide  of  some  other 
mineral  for  the  microscope.  Drawings  can  also  be  made  of  the  various 
crystal  forms  in  mineralogy.  They  are  exceedingly  interesting,  and  I  find 
children  of  the  grammar  grades,  who  have  l:)een  taught  drawing  as  a  mode 
of  expression,  are  quite  as  capable  of  appreciating  and  entering  into  the  valu- 
able facts  and  ideas  embodied  in  this  science  as  any  other  people.  Their  joy 
and  admiration  are  excited  as  readily  by  mineralogy  as  by  other  studies,  and 
their  minds  can  be  expanded  and  ideas  of  reverence  and  adoration  excited 
thereby. 

Perhaps  the  most  wonderful  color  it  is  possible  for  the  eye  to  appre- 
ciate is  exhibited  by  the  iridescent  radiance  that  gleams  from  many  forms 
of  crystals,  of  metals  and  other  minerals.  Nothing  is  more  common  in  the 
environment  of  most  children  than  various  kinds  of  minerals — granite, quartz, 
chalk,  marble,  iron,  lead,  tin,  etc.  Beautiful  specimens  of  valuable  varieties 
of  mineral  forms  can  be  purchased  cheaply.  Some  are  beautiful  in  color, 
such  as  malachite,  azurite.  sulphur,  chalcopyrite,  fire  opal,  jasper,  etc.  The 
children  should  memorize  and  embody  these  colors  direct  from  the  min- 
erals themselves,  and  should  make  drawings  of  specimens.  They  should 
also  handle  and  compare  the  samples  one  with  the  other  frequently,  with 
respect  to  their  hardness,  lustre,  fracture,  structure,  texture,  color,  density, 
weight,  etc. 

Entomology. — To  children  this  is  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  inter- 
esting departments  of  elementary  nature  study.  There  is  a  wonderful 
amount  of  spontaneous  curiosity  excited  by  the.se  strange  and  beautiful 
creatures.  Plate  Seven,  page  55.  represents  the  children  working  with  in- 
sects that  they  have  collected  themselves  and  are  now  studying.  One  pupil 
is  engaged  in  examining  a  portion  of  the  seventeen-year  locust,  while  the 
other  is  making  a  variety  of  drawings  from  the  insect  and  its  different  parts. 
No  forms  embody  the  wonders  of  color  more  beautifully  than  insects.  Few 
forms  are  more  suitable  for  school  purposes  and  class  instruction,  or  retain 
their  perfect  color  and  tints  better  than  insects.  Mounted  as  they  are  by 
certain  firms  for  individual  use.  they  are  desirable  and  verv  handy  for  large 


Correlation  of  Art  Methods 


353 


numbers  to  use,  and  tliev  reveal  endless  combinations  and  beauties  of  color 
with  which  every  pupil  and  teacher  should  become  familiar. 

All  children  are  pleased  with  the  metamorphosis  of  insects,  and  espe- 
cially that  of  butterlhes  and  moths.  They  can  collect  the  egtjs  and  larvae 
and  observe  the  various  stages  of  development — (i)  egg,  (2)  larva,  (3)  pupa, 

Illustration  402 


Corri'lulinn  with  N.ilur.il  llinton- 
NLikmi;  .  h  iri>   r>i  the  various  p;irls  nf  a  bird,  and  Ihc  nkclcton.    The  nuincs  of  all  lln  |>.iiii. 
mid  bonis  arc  prinlcd  aKaiiift  lai  li.    Tin-  sludinl  of  n.il<iriil  hiilory  lindi  this  traininK  a  viml  help 
in  fixinf(  in  (he  mind  diHicuIt  factn,  tcrnm  and  pokitinns. 


(4)  imago.  Drawings  and  diagrams  can  be  made  of  many  of  these  forms 
and  stages,  ami  bugs  and  beetles  that  are  usually  objects  of  disgust  to  the 
ordinary  child  become  objects  of  delight  and  wonder  to  those  trained  aright. 
Of  course  it  is  still  better,  especially  in  secondary  schools,  when  suflicient 


354  Various  Applications 

time  is  devoted  to  this  and  other  natural  sciences,  that  the  students  capture, 
prepare,  mount  and  name  the  specimens  for  themselves. 

I  do  not  advocate  the  making  of  miscellaneous  collections  of  insects  to 
be  swept  away  in  the  course  of  time,  but  I  do  ailvocate  tliat  children  should 
become  thoroughly  familiar  with  a  few  of  the  forms  in  their  relations  and 
associations. 

Chemistry. — In  Plate  Thirty-two  the  children  are  engaged  in  testing 
various  substances  by  the  action  of  heat  and  acids.  One  pupil  is  using  the 
blow-pipe,  an  operation  in  \\hicli  nnich  skill  is  required.  The  other  pupil 
is  ready  to  test  the  same  with  acid. 

The  children  should  perform  many  experiments  and  make  observations 
from  them.  The  value  of  the  whole  work  will  depend  largely  upon  the  accu- 
racy of  the  observations,  and  the  manner  of  keeping  notes.  In  connection 
with  the  notes,  careful  drawings  and  diagrams  should  be  made  of  the  vari- 
ous forms  and  of  the  apparatus.  Many  simple  experiments  can  be  made 
in  the  grammar  grades  or  common  schools  that  have  no  apparatus  or  lal)or- 
atory.  For  instance,  sulphur  may  be  heated  and  dissolved  in  carbon  bisul- 
phide and  allowed  to  crystallize  in  its  three  different  forms,  which  can  be 
studied  and  drawn.  Interesting  experiments  can  be  performed  on  the  prep- 
aration and  properties  of  iodine  and  its  eft'ect  on  starch;  this  knowledge  can 
be  used  in  the  work  on  seeds. 

In  making  this  series  of  picture's  from  these  children,  1  have  been  pri- 
marily engaged  in  showing  the  different  occupations.  Of  course  I  would 
like  to  exhibit  ten  pictures  of  the  product  of  the  work  of  these  children  in 
each  study.  This  is  not  possible,  however,  and  the  work  is  merely  sugges- 
tive. These  children  can  test  the  various  substances,  mount  the  specimens 
for  the  microscope,  make  their  own  ignition  tubes,  frames  and  apparatus  of  a 
variety  of  kinds,  and  frequently,  by  investigation  of  the  subject  matter,  they 
determine  its  name  and  various  other  interesting  and  scientific  facts. 

Making  Charts, — The  pupils  in  the  higher  grades,  and  teachers  who 
have  had  suf^cient  training,  can  make  very  fine  charts  for  a  variety  of  pur- 
poses, as  illustrated.  For  this  purpose  large  sheets  of  manilla  paper  can 
be  used.  It  can  be  procured  by  the  yard  or  in  rolls,  36  inches,  40  inches 
and  44  inches  wide.  A  very  good  size  is  about  40x44  inches.  These 
sheets  can  I)e  pinned  up  on  the  wall  or  on  a  blackboard,  and  drawn  upon 
just  as  the  pupils  draw  on  the  blackboard.        Charts  can  l)e  made  for  a 


Correlation  of  Art  Methods 


355 


variety  of  school  purposes,  illustrating  all  the  botanical  forms.  A  variety 
of  nature  studies,  geological  formations,  minerals,  studies  in  zoology,  anat- 
omy, physiology  and  astronomy,  can  be  illustrated  in  this  way,  and  service- 
able charts  matle  for  use  in  the  lower  schools. 

The  illustrations   given    herewith    (Xos.   397   to   404   inclusive)  show 

riustration  403 


Painting  Charts 

One  boy  is  ilrawini;  conventional  shcJIs.  The  other,  varioun  fi»h  fnrms.  The  charts  are  painlcil  with  a  hrush 
In  India  ink  or  water  color  and  arc  uscrul  in  Oic  lower  Krailes.  The  name*  and  technical  tcnnt  are  printed  under 
each  form. 


high  school  boys  preparing  charts  to  I)e  used  in  the  lower  schools.  The 
forms  are  drawnfrechandwithalead-pencil,  and  then  painlcdin  monochrome, 
in  India  ink,  or  in  water  colors,  as  desired.  This  is  splendid  practice,  as 
can  be  seen  from  the  pictures,  an<l  the  charts  are  very  useful  for  purposes  of 
illustration  in  the  school  room.  I  am  taking  it  for  granted  that  the  pupils 
doing  this  work  will  have  had  complete  training  in  all  our  methods  of  draw- 
ing and  manual  training,  and  arc  capable  of  making  charts  that  will  be 


356  Various  Applications 

sufficiently  accurate  to  be  used  for  school  purposes.  This  our  pupils  can 
do  readily,  and  there  is  a  great  demand  in  the  lower  schools  for  these  charts. 
Remember,  I  am  not  advocating  that  poor  work  by  beginners  should  be 
spread  around  the  class  rooms.  Only  very  skilled  teachers  or  pupils  who 
have  power  of  drawing  as  a  mode  of  expression  can  attempt  to  make  these 
charts.  Usually  in  my  schools  they  have  had  four,  five  or  six  years'  solid 
training  in  the  other  departments,  and  are  therefore  quite  fit  to  do  the  ex- 
pert work  illustrated.  Where  such  experts  are  not  available,  printed  charts 
can  be  secured  that  will  represent  the  different  subjects  with  fidelity. 

I  do  not  believe  in  much  copying  from  the  flat,  but  I  do  believe  that 
it  is  possible  for  children  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  primary  schools  to  be 
very  much  benefited  by  looking  at  and  occasionally  working  from  fine 
charts,  of  forms  that  cannot  readily  be  introduced  into  the  school  room. 
Beautiful  drawings  of  such  animals  as  reptiles,  insects,  birds  and  fishes,  can 
be  made  and  give  pupils  in  the  higher  grades  splendid  practice.  They  can 
be  made  sufficiently  well  for  use  in  the  lower  grades  in  any  thoroughly  or- 
ganized school. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  looking  at  the  illustrations  of  these  charts  that  the 
forms  are  all  large,  made  to  be  seen  readily  from  any  part  of  a  large  room. 
The  essential  features  are  well  marked,  leaving  out  trifling  detail,  this  being 
valuable  practice  to  the  pupils  making  the  charts,  especially  if  they  have  to 
stand  up  and  do  the  work  boldly  and  freely.  Similar  charts  are  made  of 
all  the  historic  styles,  the  units  of  design,  and  important  architectural  forms. 
In  the  mechanical  departments  the  charts  show  modes  of  construction  in 
wood  and  metal;  all  the  different  joints  and  forms  in  wood  can  be  illustrated, 
and  problems  in  perspecti\e  and  machine  drawing,  architectural  plans  and 
elevations  can  be  made  on  a  large  scale. 

In  making  charts  of  this  character,  it  is  important  to  select  the  very 
best  forms  for  illustration  in  the  stages  that  are  most  appropriate  for 
school  uses.  For  nature  studies  or  elementary  science  work  many 
beautiful  charts  can  be  made.  In  zoology,  for  instance,  examples  of  the 
radiates  can  be  given,  like  the  star  fish,  sea  urchin,  etc.;  mollusks, —  the  snail, 
mussel,  clam,  etc.  Examples  of  articulates  can  also  be  given, — the  lobster, 
crab,  grasshopper,  bee,  spider,  etc.  Examples  of  vertebrates — among  the 
fishes  drawings  can  be  made  of  trout,  bass,  herring,  and  shark.  Batrachians 
and  amphibians  can  he  drawn  in  various  stages;  examples — the  toad,  frog, 


Correlation  of  Art  Methods 


357 


salamander,  etc.;  examples  in  reptiles — the  snake,  alligator,  tortoise,  lizard; 
examples  of  birds — the  chicken,  duck,  turkey,  parrot,  robin,  swallow,  etc.; 
examples  of  mammals — the  cat,  dog^, sheep,  horse,  deer,  lion,  etc.  In  botany, 
flowers  can  be  drawn, — their  general  shape  and  appearance,  and  their  dif- 
ferent parts.  Leaves  of  different  kinds  can  be  drawn,-.— simple  leaves,  com- 
pound leaves  and  t)ther  varieties.  The  germination  and  growth  of  plants 
can  be  illustrated:  seeds  and  their  various  jiarts  can  be  explained.  Other 
charts  can  be  made  to  show  kinds  of  plants,  their  habits  and  their  use:  and 
diagrams  to  show  their  anatomy,  their  structure,  texture,  etc.  These  are 
simply  suggestions  tliat  will  be  found  elsewhere  in  the  course  for  different 
grades,  and  that  show  how  drawing  can  be  correlated  to  the  other  depart- 
ments without  any  loss  of  time. 

Illustration  404 


ruiuliiHf  chart  of  Mi.ch.inicul  l'"ornii 


DC 

o 

u- 
I 

>• 
I- 

H 

tu 

!- 
< 


CHAPTER  III 

Art  and  Manual  Training  in 
Special  Schools  * 


(<;)  MGHT  SCHOOLS 

X  EDUCATING  THE  YOUXG  IX  THE 
night  schools,  there  is  no  reason  wliy  we  should 
not  give  them,  along  with  the  means  of  making  a 
livelihood  and  an  energetic  disposition,  a  knowl- 
edge of  their  own  character  and  the  possibilities 
of  which  they  are  capable.  All  attempts  in  edu- 
cation of  this  kind  should  be  in  the  direction  of 
finding  out  what  the  pupil  is  most  fitted  for,  and 
then  to  develop  the  natural  capacity.  This  is  the 
plan  I  have  followed. 

The  training  advocated  is  not  visionary,  it  is 
possible  and  practical.  It  has  been  tried  and  has 
not  been  found  wanting,  and  its  beneficial 
results  are  so  patent  as  to  convince  even  the 
most  skei)tical.  In  the  tlilTcrent  classes  of  the 
various  night  schools  that  I  direct,  its  effective- 
ness is  being  constantly  demonstrated.  I-'ach 
season  sees  an  increase  in  the  attendance,  and 
added  earnestness  and  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  and  a  real  tangible 
output  of  accomplished  work, — work  wliicli  represents  not  only  mu.scu!ar 
energy,  but  thought,  and  which  is  moreover  actually  salal)lc.  I  have  seen 
many  relays  of  pupils,  ragged  street  urchins,  dirty,  irresponsible  little  waifs. 


•In  thin  chapter  arc  given  unnic  Kcncral  nuifitc^tlons.  which  arc  thr  mult  of  fincrn  vrarn'  experience  with  nluht 
schnojs,  summer  fchooU  and  vacatinn  vchuolit,  after  trying  many  kiuJ>  of  work  with  »cvcr»l  graitea  of  chilJren  anJ 
adults. 

(359) 


360  Various  Applications 

with  no  organized  classified  knowledge  of  anything  except  vice,  grow  into 
sturdy  youths,  cleanly  from  personal  preference,  decently  clothed,  amenable 
to  rules,  and  above  all,  ambitious,  with  power  to  work  and  plod  steadily. 
They  have  become  so  unconsciously  (through  the  performance  of  sys- 
tematic and  persistent  actions,  and  through  their  improved  associations"),  un- 
der the  endeavor  to  create  things  of  use  and  beauty.  They  have  learned 
how  to  do,  how  to  make  their  hands  the  servants  of  their  brains,  how  to  use 
their  intellect  to  some  pleasurable  end.  The  joy  they  find  in  the  discovery 
of  these  unknown  faculties  is  attested  by  their  voluntary  application  to  the 
school  tasks,  an  application  which  resembles  that  of  the  enthusiastic  young 
mechanic  to  his  "job"  rather  than  of  the  unwilling  pupil  to  his  lesson. 

It  requires  very  little  thought  to  convince  almost  any  one  that  there 
must  be  something  in  artistic  work,  where  the  beauty  of  the  product  is  con- 
sidered as  well  as  the  use,  that  has  in  a  measure  repaid  the  artist  in  past 
periods,  since  it  is  well  known  they  have  often  received  little  return  in  the 
way  of  money.  This  is  true  with  regard  to  the  work  of  authors,  poets  and 
others,  as  well  as  of  artists.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  joy  in  the  labor 
that  compensates.  The  exercise  of  the  higher  faculties  is  one  of  the  most 
important  functions  of  life.  Children  are  not  to  be  shut  out  from  this — es- 
pecially poor  children.  Neglected  children,  those  who  have  not  had  the 
advantages  enjoyed  by  children  in  comfortable  circumstances,  are  wonder- 
fully responsive  to  the  training  that  brings  out  this  spirit. 

To  get  any  response  from  the  very  young  and  irresponsible  we  must  ap- 
peal to  the  emotions  and  aspirations.*  Dry  tasks  and  uninteresting  work 
will  not  do  this;  they  must  be  fascinated  and  charmed.  This  can  readily  be 
done  with  proper  methods.  Children  are  first  idly  curious,  then  attentive, 
then  ambitious,  in  an  easy  series  of  steps. 

The  young  are  imitative  and  very  susceptible  to  suggestion.  At  cer- 
tain stages  they  must  be  doing  something,  good  or  evil.  Overflowing 
with  energy,  it  must  have  an  outcome,  a  vent.  This  current  can  be  made 
to  flow  in  any  tlirection.  Usually  it  is  environment  that  controls  this  ex- 
penditure or  flow  of  energy,  and  the  children  are,  and  do,  as  their  associates 
do.       I  find  there  is  a  wonderful  impulse  to  action  stored  up  at  certain 


•  Art  tlrouscs  emotions  and  aspirations  but  not  appetites.     Its  effect  is  therefore  to  purify  the  feelinjjs. — [Dr.  W. 
T.  Harris. 


Special  Schools 


361 


periods  in  the  young,  especially  among  the  lower  classes.  The  lower  one 
goes  in  the  social  scale,  the  more  energy  we  find  exerted  on  material  things, 
the  more  we  find  the  capacity  for  work  implanted. 

I  have  seen  boys  in  some  of  my  night  schools  come  in  drenched  with 

Illustration  405 


Night  School  In  a  Church  nascmcnt 
Sixty  pupils  arc  engaged  in  drawing,  dcfeigning,  mndcling  and  cani-ing. 


the  rain,  after  a  hard  day's  work  selling  newspapers,  or  delivering  mes- 
sages, the  slave  of  twenty  bosses  perhaps  in  some  shop,  and  sit  down  to 
carve  or  model  until  a  pool  formed  at  their  feet.  They  will  work  two  ht)nrs 
with  energy  and  pleasure,  often  at  heavy  work,  and  go  home  hapi)y  and  well, 
if  moist.  The  same  thing  done  by  a  pupil  reared  in  the  lap  of  iu.xury 
would  send  him  to  his  grave,  or  perhaps  cause  him  some  serious  illness. 


Z62  Various  Applications 

Many  men  and  women  at  maturity  seem  to  lose  this  natural  activity  that 
is  planted  in  them  to  do  things.  It  seems  to  be  diverted  to  aimless  drifting 
from  one  thing  to  another,  or  to  reading  newspapers  and  other  matter. 
With  many  this  mental  dram  drinking  seems  to  absorb  so  much  energy  that 
none  is  left  for  the  real  things  in  life.  It  is  said,  "  By  their  fruits  ye  shall 
know  them;"  and  this  also, — "  To  him  that  hath  shall  be  given,  and  to  him 
that  hath  not  shall  be  taken  even  that  which  he  hath."  Unless  one  works, 
even  the  desire  to  do  so  will  gradually  pass  away.  After  maturity,  in  many 
cases,  it  seems  impossible  to  arouse  the  activities  by  any  means.  See  how 
incessant  these  activities  in  the  young — so  should  they  be  during  mature 
age. 

Importance  of  Occupation. —The  path  is  plain  for  teachers  who 
really  desire  to  change  the  character  of  the  pupils  in  their  charge.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  give  the  boys  or  girls  a  disposition  to  perform  right  action.  Every 
deed  is  a  prayer  and  helps  in  forming  habits  of  right  that  will  result  in  a  good 
disposition.  Their  energies  are  just  as  active  toward  viciousness  if  their 
environiiient  is  vicious,  and  it  is  simply  to  counteract  these  influences  that 
the  teacher  has  to  work. 

Do  not  let  the  pupils  in  night  schools  or  vacation  schools  be  injured  b}' 
contact  with  namby-pamby,  goody-goody  people,  who  come  in  at  intervals 
with  the  very  earnest  desire  to  help,  but  whose  ideas  of  help  are  so  nebulous 
and  obscure  as  to  usually  resemble  their  own  tendencies.  They  will  wish  to 
amuse  the  children,  and  frecjuently  think  the  simple  contact  with  their  supe- 
rior presence  is  sufficient  to  elevate  them.  They  will  frequently  seek  to 
patronize  the  children  to  the  extent  of  reading  to  them  or  playing  games  with 
them.  In  some  cases  I  have  actually  seen  good  boys  ruined  by  these  well- 
meaning,  thoughtless  people,  who  have  attempted  to  better  their  hard  lives 
and  conditions  by  teaching  them  how  to  dance  and  sing,  and  in  some  cases 
even  going  to  the  trouble  of  giving  them  lessons  on  the  lianjo,  in  jig  dancing, 
light  opera,  and  things  of  this  kind. 

It  does  not  require  much  thought  to  realize  that  unless  we  can  put 
these  boys  in  a  different  environment  from  that  they  live  in,  it  is  an  injury  to 
their  characters  to  make  them  pursue  pleasure  for  its  own  sake,  without  giv- 
ing them  at  the  same  time  a  disposition  to  be  reliant  and  industrious  in 
other  directions.  To  give  them  the  one  without  the  other  is  wicked.  This 
I  have  seen  done  even  in  a  church  school. 


Special  Schools 


363 


We  expect  too  itiucIt  from  cliildreii  when  we  send  them  to  Sunday  school 
one  or  two  hours  a  week,  or  to  a  night  class  or  a  guild,  where  ihev  have 
simply  been  singing  hymns  and  listening  to  diluted  ideas  or  printed  matter, 
which  deals  with  truths  of  nature  at  second-hand.       Wc  expect  too  much 

Illustrations  406-407 


lit  tlic  Wood-Wftrkin^  lJ<-|i.irtiiii;nl,  lli^li  School 

The  teacher   is  explaining  construction  and  dimensions  of  Bny  fitting  joints  in  a  Tranie  inadi-   1<y  the 

pattern  wheel  for  c;islin)(.  pupil. 


from  tliem,  I  say,  if  we  expect  tiiem  to  realize  and  appreciate  righteousness, 
order,  high  principles  and  so  on  by  such  "  second-hand"  methods.  They 
must  get  practical  lessons  in  these  things,  not  auditory  impressions  only. 
The  first  and  the  whole  part  of  a  teacher's  duty  in  the  lieginning  is  to 
make  the  children  perceive  the  iiriiiciples  of  beauty  and  titness  implanted  in 
nature,  and  to  train  them  to  make  the  necessary  reactions.  Children  must 
be  bombarded  with  these  ideas.      Tliev  must  be  drenched  with  the  bcautv  of 


364  Various  Applications 

things  and  of  life  at  first-hand,  just  as  nature  is  continually  hammering  at 
them  in  so  man_\-  other  directions.  Then  the  lessons  can  be  carried  from 
these  things  to  the  abstract  ideas  based  on  them. 

How  can  we  expect  children  to  be  influenced  by  concepts  of  evil 
preached  to  them,  when  they  are  not  conscious  of  tangible  and  visible  evils 
in  their  environment?  How  can  we  expect  love  to  be  infused  into  the  mind 
by  beautiful  words,  written  or  spoken,  if  they  cannot  appreciate  the  A'isible 
and  tangible  beauty  in  things  around?  How  can  we  expect  parents  who 
are  blind  to  visible  physical  evils,  actually  existing  in  some  of  their  children, 
to  realize  anything  about  the  invisible  mental  evils  and  vices  that  may  be 
developing  in  their  character?  The  spiritual  or  mental  life  has  just  as  many 
sides,  suffers  injury  just  as  readily  and  is  as  capable  of  improvement  as  the 
physical.  Some  one  has  truly  said,  "  It  is  much  easier  to  let  children  do 
as  the}^  will  than  to  make  them  do  as  the}-  ought.  It  is  necessary  to  form 
moral  habits  in  children  before  you  can  inculcate  moral  principles.  Later 
on  you  can  justify  your  habits  bv  principles." 

Application  and  Plant  Required. — One  of  the  chief  advantages  of 
this  method  for  night  and  vacation  schools  is  its  feasibility  of  application, 
slight  cost  and  ease  of  adaptation  to  diverse  classes.  Classes  have  been  estab- 
lished in  \'arions  churches,  guilds  and  aid  societies  on  week-day  evenings, 
and  during  the  summer  months  in  the  forenoons.  I  propose  here  to  give  a 
few  suggestions  as  to  cost  and  application,  in  very  simple  ways.  These  sug- 
gestions can  be  used  by  committees  of  various  kinds,  or  single  individuals, 
who  can  carry  out  the  work.  Usually,  however,  a  committee  of  one  is  the 
best. 

I  have  supposed,  for  the  present  instance,  that  the  room,  a  large  room, 
has  been  provided  by  the  organization,  society  or  church,  and  that  there  are 
chairs  and  light,  everything  else  to  be  furnished.  The  committee  should 
decide  on  the  number  of  pupils  and  the  branches.  For  general  purposes  I 
find  that  the  most  feasible  way  is  to  use  the  four  fundamental  branches — 
drawing,  designing,  clay  modeling  and  carving. 

If  the  committee  decide  to  do  this,  and  the  room  is  large  enough  for 
twelve  pupils  in  each  department,  plant  can  be  furnished  as  follows :  Four 
large  tables,  each  3x12  feet.  The  tops  of  these  tables  must  be  at  least  two 
inches  thick,  on  trestles  that  can  be  moved,  so  that  they  can  be  put  away 
at  any  time.       One  table  is  to  be  used  for  wood  carving,  one  for  modeling 


Special  Schools 


365 


and  two  for  drawing, — twelve  pupils  at  eacli  table.  This  allows  them 
plenty  of  room,  and  if  necessary  even  fourteen  can  sit  at  each  table.  If  a 
school  room  is  taken  the  ordinarv  desks  can  be  used,  but  tables  or  benches 


Illustration  408 


Clay  Modclin:^  in  u  Night  School 

Flo-sh  light  picture  of  clay  niodclin);  dcp.artnicnt,  in  church  hascnicnt.    These  boys  somctimcit  dniw  on  paper 
and  cun'c  in  wood. 


are  better  for  carving.  This  ])lant  will  be  for  an  equipment  of  about  fifty 
pupils.  Of  course  more  than  that  number  can  be  enrolled,  there  always 
being  some  unavoidable  absences  each  session. 

The  plant,  apart  from  the  tools,  required  for  this  number,  will  be: — as 
many  blackboards  as  there  is  wall  space  (if  they  can  be  borrowed  or  pro- 
cured: for  at  least  two  or  three  blackboards  should  be  used  all  the  time,  the 
pupils  taking  turns  at  this  work, — leaving  their  seats,  working  for  ten  min- 
utes at  the  blackboard  and  then  changing  with  other  pupils):  some  open 
shelves  to  stack  the  work  ujion.  a  closet  to  lock  up  tools  and  materials,  and 
a  clav  box.      This  will  be  all  that  is  required.     .\  simple  i)ine  box  4  or  5  feet 


366  Various  Applications 

long,  with  a  lid,  will  do  to  hold  the  clay.  A  few  shelves  can  be  put  at  one 
end  to  place  the  partly  finished  work  on. 

Mdteridls  Needed, — For  the  drawing  work:  One  ream  of  manila 
paper,  36  lbs.  to  the  ream  (this  is  good,  strong  paper,  and  can  be  used  for 
designing  and  for  practice  work,  and  will  last  about  one  winter  for  a  class 
of  50,  using  it  very  liberally);  three  gross  lead  pencils,  two  pounds  of  rub- 
ber and  four  dozen  small  camel's-hair  brushes,  Xos.  4  and  5,  for  painting  the 
patterns  and  designs;  two  dozen  bottles  Higgins'  black  ink,  or  India  ink,  or, 
if  it  is  a  matter  of  economy,,  common  jet-black  ink  can  he  purchased;  one 
dozen  boxes  common  water  colors  (Rembrandt  boxes  are  good  for  this 
purpose,  costing  25  cents  each);  five  dozen  foot-rules, — these  are  usually 
given  away  at  the  art  stores  with  advertisements  on  them. 

For  the  modeling  department:  18  modeling  boards,  12x14  inches 
(these  can  be  made  of  pine  at  about  fifteen  cents  each  by  any  carpenter, 
battened  on  each  end  to  prevent  warping);  two  dozen  small  modeling  tools, 
one  dozen  large  modeling  tools,  two  dozen  palette  knives,  with  blades  about 
five  inches  in  length, — the  thick,  heavy  ones  are  the  best;  six  common  cups 
or  mugs  to  hold  water;  and  six  small  sponges.  For  models,  plaster  casts 
and  natural  forms  can  be  used,  according  to  the  amount  of  money  that  can 
be  procured  for  this  purpose.  The  forms  described  in  this  book  are  rec- 
ommended as  being  the  most  valuable  for  the  purpose,  and  can  be  readily 
purchased. 

For  the  carving  department,  the  following  materials  would  be  re- 
quired:  One  common  grindstone,  foot  power;  one  saw,  cross-cut;  one 
hammer,  one  screw  driver,  one  box  of  assorted  nails,  two  boxes  of  tacks  and 
twelve  sets  of  carving  tools.  There  are  ten  tools  in  each  box, — small  sharp- 
ening stone,  one  mallet,  two  clamps  and  a  stamping  tool,  this  being  about 
the  usual  equipment  for  one  pupil  (Illus.  317).  With  twelve  complete  sets  and 
a  few  additional  tools  that  are  used  in  common,  eighteen  boys  if  necessary 
can  work,  some  of  the  tools  not  being  in  use  all  of  the  time.  A  carpenter's 
steel  square,  two  sharpening  stones  and  one  common  jack  plane  complete 
the  equipment  of  tools  for  the  carving  department. 

The  wood  required  for  carving  will  be  250  feet  of  soft  red  oak,  planed 
to  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  This  can  be  delivered  in  planks  and 
cut  off  as  required,  of  various  lengths,  according  to  the  size  of  the  work  the 
pupils  wish.       For  convenience,  the  planks  can  be  cut  in  two  at  the  lumber 


special  Schools 


367 


yards,  making  pieces  that  can  he  readily  stored  away.  The  planks  sliouid 
run  ahout  six.  eight  and  ten  inches  in  width.  One  hundred  feet  of  soft 
quartered  oak  can  be  usetl  for  best  work,  of  the  same  width  and  thickness. 
In  ordering  lumber,  be  sure  to  get  tiie  soft  oak.  It  is  firm  in  texture  ami 
just  right  for  carving.      Some  oak  is  very  hard,  and  it  is  almost  impossible 

Illustration  409 


Untwini^,  Dc^i^ning  and  .Mo<lclin|( 
St.  James  boys*  guild  ni^ht  school. 


for  children  in  the  beginning  to  do  much  with  it.  .Sec  that  the  oak  which 
you  buy.  then,  is  the  desired  quality.  It  can  usually  be  purchased  at  abcnit 
five  or  six  cents  a  foot,  wholesale,  in  the  cities. 

Chalk  and  lead  pencils  to  be  used  by  the  carving  class  in  making  their 
designs  on  the  boards,  will  be  furnished  by  the  drawing  dci)arlment.  .\ 
can  of  oil  must  be  provided  for  sharpening  the  tools,  and  it  is  good  to  have  a 
can  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  a  brush  to  oil  the  carvings  when  they  are  fin- 
ished, according  to  the  option  of  the  teacher. 

For  the  blackboard  dei)artment,  at  least  one  dozen  erasers  will  be  re- 
quired, and  six  gross  (or  boxes)  of  school  chalk  or  crayon.     See  that  the 


368  Various  Applications 

blackboards  are  placed  in  a  position  where  they  will  not  interfere  with  the 
workers  at  the  tables.  A  clock,  one  call  bell  and  a  roll  book,  with  a  small 
desk  or  table  for  the  teacher  attending  to  the  discipline,  roll  call,  etc.,  will 
be  all  the  eqnipment  reqnired.  If  possible,  use  slate  blackboards.  Any 
other  kind  will  wear  out  very  quickly,  on  account  of  the  constant  use.  Can- 
vas or  wood  surfaces  and  painted  surfaces  are  very  good  for  use  for  or- 
dinary purposes,  but  slate  is  the  best  if  pupils  are  to  work  constantly,  the 
life  of  a  canvas. board  l)eing  only  a  few  months  if  it  is  used  steadily. 

The  Tedchers  Needed. — In  running  a  class  of  this  kind,  numbering 
from  50  to  60,  three  teachers  will  be  reqnired, — one  each  for  drawing,  mod- 
eling and  carving.  The  pupils  can  change  at  intervals  from  table  to  table. 
There  can  be  a  regular  system,  allowing  pupils  to  change  every  third  or 
fourth  session. — the  whole  class  together,  or  it  can  be  done  at  the  finish  of 
each  piece  of  work  individually,  according  to  convenience,  ^^'hile  rotation 
of  work  is  important,  there  need  be  no  set  rule  about  it. 

Do  not  let  the  children  work  in  one  department  only.  This  they  will 
sometimes  desire  to  do.  See  that  the  pupils,  however,  get  the  advantage 
of  the  opposite  kinds  of  work.  \\'e  find  in  the  cities  the  most  convenient 
hour  for  a  night  class  to  be  from  7 130  to  9 :30.  For  vacation  schools  from 
9:30  to  II  :30  a.  m.,  if  one  session  only.  In  some  schools,  however,  two 
or  three  classes  can  be  received  during  the  forenoon.  The  school  can  be 
conducted  one,  two  or  three  nights  a  week,  according  to  the  amount  of 
money  to  be  spent  for  teachers. 

The  following  rules  will  be  found  useful  in  managing  the  children  in  the 
evenings.  Do  not  allow  them  to  enter  the  room  till  7 130.  See  that  the 
teachers  are  in  attendance  at  7:15:  this  is  very  important.  If  a  teacher 
comes  late,  the  class  is  demoralized.  If  this  happens  repeatedly  with  any 
teacher,  change  the  teacher.  See  that  each  teacher  has  the  work 
spread  out  and  in  place  on  each  table  before  pupils  enter,  all  work 
to  lie  cared  for  and  carefully  put  away  after  the  class  is  over.  Indi- 
vidual instruction  .'should  be  given  to  each  pupil  in  rotation  by  the  teacher 
of  each  ta1)le. 

Take  the  roll  about  nine  o'clock,  ring  the  bell,  have  all  the  classes 
cease  work  and  call  ofT  the  names.  This  is  the  most  rapid  and  best  way. 
At  the  same  time,  announcements  can  be  made  of  any  kind  pertaining  to 
the  work,  and  it  is  advisal)lc  to  make  statements  at  frequent  intervals  as  to 


Special  Schools 


Z69 


the  character  and  benefit  of  the  work.  Instruct  the  teachers  to  continually 
enforce  the  rule  that  pupils  must  sit  up  in  their  seats,  keep  their  heads  level 
and  their  designs  and  work  spread  evenly  on  the  table.  Damage  is  done  to 
the  pupils  physically  by  their  drooping  over  their  work,  this  shortening  the 
focal  length  of  vision  and  injuring  the  breathing  capacitv. 

If  the  pupils  are  boisterous  in  their  conduct,  stop  it  at  once.       The 
moment  they  come  in,  the  rule  should  be  immediately  enforced  that  they 

Illustrations  410-41 1 


Designed  and  Car\-cd  in  Llii:  Ni)(lit  bUiuui* 


take  their  seats  proni])lly  and  quietly,  and  begin  to  work.  .\ny  boisterous 
calling  to  each  other  or  "  cutting  u])"  nuist  be  cause  for  removal.  In  our 
classes  the  work  is  so  interesting  that  the  pupils  settle  down  very  readily, 
and  there  is  no  trouble  at  all  in  keeping  order.  Even  "  toughs."  that 
come  in  occasionally  to  some  of  these  classes,  become  like  "  tin  angels"  for 
the  time  being. 

One  of  the  three  teachers  should  have  general  authority,  and  see  that 
the  pupils  go  up  to  the  blackboard  in  rotation.       Invite  visitors  and  friends 


370  Various  Applications 

of  pupils  as  much  as  possible  to  visit  the  school.  This  encourages  the 
pupils  and  helps  to  maintain  order.  See  that  the  pupils  are  at  work  all 
of  the  time. 

As  the  work  is  finishetl  in  the  ilrawing,  modeling  or  carving  depart- 
ments, have  it  placed  on  the  walls  for  exhibition.  Do  this  from  the  first 
night.  Do  it  while  the  children  are  there.  In  a  very  short  time  the  walls 
will  be  decorated  with  pieces  of  work.  As  the  character  of  the  work  im- 
proves, remove  the  poor  pieces  and  place  good  work  in  their  places.  At 
certain  periods  allow  the  pupils  to  keep  their  work,  and  take  it  home.  If 
any  child  expresses  particular  desire  to  show  its  parents  the  work,  allow  it 
to  be  taken  home,  but  make  the  rule  that  it  should  be  brought  back  the 
next  night.  Keep  all  finished  work  for  the  exhibition,  at  the  end  of  the 
term.      After  that,  allow  every  piece  of  work  to  be  kept  by  the  pupil. 

This  is  very  important  and  is  a  great  means  of  encouraging  the  classes, 
because  each  piece  of  work  will  impress  the  parents  as  to  its  value,  and  they 
will  soon  help  the  teacher  in  keeping  pupils  steady  in  their  attendance.  I 
have  known  cases  where  the  parents  have  forcibly  removed  their  children 
in  the  beginning,  through  ignorance.  I  have  seen  the  same  children 
brought  back  by  their  parents  when  they  could  see  what  valuable  work  other 
children  were  able  to  do,  and  what  an  influence  it  was  in  keeping  them  out 
of  mischief. 

Teachers  in  the  Night  or  Vacation  Schools  must  remember  that 
the  object  of  the  work  is  a  little  different  from  that  of  the  ordinary  school. 
Discipline  and  education  are  not  the  only  things  to  be  considered.  The 
children  are  also  working  for  fun  and  recreation.  It  must  be  made  pleasant 
for  them.  Teachers  must  realize  when  they  are  working  with  degraded 
children,  that  their  minds  are  small,  and  they  must  be  led  from  stage  to 
stage  unconsciously.  If  you  give  a  street  arab  or  some  waif  a  piece  of  work 
that  becomes  irksome  from  its  subject,  that  particular  pupil  is  apt  to  despair 
the  second  session,  from  lack  of  self-control  and  energy.  Like  the  savage 
who  will  only  work  when  he  has  to,  they  have  not  been  taught  the  habit 
of  continuous  application. 

A  good  teacher  must,  therefore,  be  very  particular  at  this  stage  with 
all  the  different  pupils,  to  see  that  there  is  an  element  of  satisfaction  and 
pleasure  in  their  work.  They  must  be  allowed  to  do  things  which  are  not 
rigidly  graded  and  are  not  visibly  in  the  nature  of  drill  and  discipline. 


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372  Various  Applications 

They  must  be  allowed  to  select  what  they  please  as  long  as  it  is  not  too  dif- 
ficult for  them  to  attempt,  and  even  if  the  result  is  failure,  the  teacher  will 
remember  that  it  is  the  endeavor  that  counts,  not  the  achievement. 

For  this  reason  the  drawing  teacher  will  not  give  the  drill  forms  too 
much  in  the  beginning.  Do  not  present  the  dry  aspect  of  the  work. 
Encourage  the  children  to  make  diagrams  of  things  they  like,  and  even  to 
make  copies  of  things,  if  they  are  pleased  with  them.  Xo  attempt  should 
be  made  to  administer  the  drill  forms  steadily.  That  should  be  done  on 
the  blackboard  at  intervals  only.  The  rest  of  the  time  the  children  could 
be  making  patterns  and  designs  for  various  purposes  similar  to  the  ones  on 
exhibition  on  the  walls,  and  this  usually  pleases  them  very  much.  Occa- 
sionall}-  let  the  pupil  draw  leaves,  flowers,  shells,  animals,  and  other  sim- 
ilar things.  Recently  I  have  found  war  vessels,  torpedo  boats,  guns,  sol- 
diers, etc..  drawn  by  the  children  spontaneously  and  with  intense  interest. 
Keep  up  this  work,  and  by  degrees  they  become  equally  fascinated  by  other 
forms;  do  not  curb  the  pupils  in  these  tendencies  vmless  absolutely  neces- 
sary. Their  tasks,  aims  and  desires  can  be  elevated  liv  degrees.  The 
same  is  true  in  the  modeling  department,  and  after  they  have  made  one  or 
two  very  simple  pieces,  they  may  be  allowed,  if  they  desire,  to  attempt  to 
copy  the  forms  that  give  them  pleasure,  no  matter  how  grotesque  or  poor 
the  product  is  at  first.  The  teacher  will  usually  be  surprised  at  the  improve- 
ment shown,  as  the  children,  when  they  have  received  encouragement 
to  go  on  by  the  pleasure  they  find  in  the  work,  later  take  readily  to  work 
that  is  more  in  the  nature  of  discipline.  For  this  reason  the  teacher  will 
allow  them  to  select  simple  models.  Do  not  compel  them  to  take  any  one 
against  their  will;  let  them  select  the  model,  if  it  is  not  too  difficult,  whether 
an  animal's  head  or  another  form.  I  have  known  many  cases  where  I 
have  taken  boys  that  were  discouraged  from  the  dift'erent  classes  and  have 
personally  put  them  to  modeling  lions  or  griffins  or  drawing  a  warship  cv 
something  that  gave  them  pleasure,  and  after  a  few  weeks'  struggling  this 
way,  tlicy  have  become  the  best  pupils  in  the  class. 

Encourage  the  Pupils, — I  must  repeatedly  speak  of  the  desirability  of 
encouraging  the  pupils  and  leading  them  from  step  to  step  unconsciously, 
rewarding  them  in  a  measure  with  a  chance  to  do  more  important  work  if 
they  complete  in  a  satisfactory  manner  what  they  are  doing.  I  continually 
feel  that  the  ones  who  do  the  poorest  work  anil  who  are  the  most  ready  to 


special  Schools 


373 


give  up  at  the  slightest  diftlciilty,  are  the  ones  who  neeil  encouragement 
the  most,  and  that  they  frequently  turn  out  to  be  the  steadiest  and  best 
pupils  in  the  end.  Consider  this  all  the  time.  No  one  can  pick  out  the 
geniuses  in  the  beginning. 

Remember,  it  is  their  characters  and  their  minds  we  are  shaping,  and 
the  most  degraded,  wretched-looking  pupils  are  the  ones  that  respond  most 


illustration  412 


Instrumental  and  Ciu.1  Drawing 
St.  James  boys'  guild  night  schcwi. 


faithfullv  to  patience,  as  they  are  also  the  ones  who  need  it  the  most.  When 
children  reach  this  stage,  it  is  very  easy,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  to  see 
their  characters  change  and  to  see  the  same  change  reflected  in  their  faces. 
No  joy  is  greater  than  to  transform  mind  and  character,  and  also  to  see  this 
transformation  reflected  in  the  face.  This  is  the  reward  of  a  (rue  teacher. 
No  set  of  children  respond  to  tliis  treatment  more  readily  than  the 
lowest,  including  some  so  unwashed  and  wretched,  some  so  marked  by 
disease,  that  it  would  seem  they  could  never  reach  maturity.  I  have  seen  the 
same  little  wretches  grown  into  big.  strapj.ing  young  men,  with  eager, 
bright  faces,  ambitious  an.l  energetic,  ].rcpared  to  fight  a  good  fight  in 
the  battle  of  life. 


374  Various  Applications 

Street  c4rabs. — There  if  a  certain  kind  of  street  aral)  tliat  can  he  met 
with  in  any  large  city  that  is  something  like  a  rat.  You  can  see  them  at 
night  sneaking  around  street  corners  and  alleys,  restless  spirits,  unable  to 
sit  consecutively  even  for  ten  minutes  in  the  same  place.  They  think  if 
you  look  at  them  steadily  for  a  minute  that  you  are  going  to  strike  them. 
They  are  of  any  age  from  six  to  about  eight  or  ten.— absolutely  little  an- 
imals, able  to  smoke,  chew  and  swear  with  ease  and  facility.  It  is  not  pos- 
sible to  take  them  at  this  stage  into  these  regular  classes,  but  in  several  of 
my  schools  I  have  a  place  apart  with  a  few  blackboards,  where  they  can  work 
if  they  wish  to  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time.     Usually  they  drift  in  and  out 

all  the  evening,    sometimes  as 
Illustration  413  , 1  •   1  1  1         r 

thick   as   a   bunch   of  grapes, 

.;.-.-'. —       'ti  .i'r-f.'i'TT'r^^^"'^^^  -"]       sometimes,  if  there   are   other 


'A  ■  I'-S^-  .-^i^-i^^W  ^  V-  attractions  on  the  street,  verv 

■'-^  p^y-^'     '  ■T'^j^i.  "'■— ?"■■  f*^''\-     It  is  advisable  to  have  a 


teacher  in  charge  of  this  de 


&^ 


.    ir,.\:L^Kj,   ;_/',''; -^' ii:,  partment,  and  thev  should  do 

■  ■■-J'd^'it'-',./ ,^/i  ^  -    ■  ■       '  almost    anything   they    please 

',]/C^"^''^'^''^.'     ■  '  "     1  °"    ^'^^   blackboards.       When 

"^  thev  have  formed  the  habit  of 


Uniini>hi:j  Panel  by  Night  School  Pupil  couiiug  and  cau  work  steadilv 

and  consecutively,  they  are 
promoted  to  seats  for  the  ordinary  work.  Do  not,  however,  let  them  mix  at 
this  stage  with  the  other  pupils.  They  are  very  quick  and  ready  to  "get 
onto"  the  advantage  that  accrues  to  them  if  they  settle  down,  and  pupils 
emerge  from  this  disorganized  little  body  by  degrees  into  the  light,  the  quiet 
and  the  order  of  the  other  classes. 

I  have  found  it  at  intervals  useful  to  give  slight  money  rewards  to  those 
who  do  the  best, — little  spurs  and  incentives  that  urge  them.  This  is  not 
bribery.  I  do  not  believe  in  the  principle  of  awards,  except  in  the  case  of 
these  classes.  They  are  not  necessary  among  ordinary  pupils.  The 
teacher  in  care  of  these  little  ones  must  have  a  certain  amount  of  tact  and 
must  exert  a  little  discipline  at  intervals. 

Properly  conducted,  a  class  of  this  kind  will  help  mightily.  It  is  per- 
haps more  important  than  any  other  of  the  departments  of  work,  because 
of  its  powerful  influence  for  good  in  this  early  period  of  child  life,  and  its 


Special  Schools 


375 


influence  on  the  character.  The  most  wretclied  children  can  be  easily  bent 
in  any  ilirectinn  at  this  age  or  period. 

Wood  Curbing. — The  teacher  of  this  department  in  a  night  school 
or  vacation  school  will  allow  the  pupils  to  carve  very  simple  panels  in  the 
beginning,  about  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  long.  In  making  their  pat- 
terns on  these  panels,  they  must  be  assisted.  Xo  harm  is  done  if  the 
teacher  in  the  beginning  actually  draws  one-half  the  simple  pattern.  The 
pupil  can  then  be  required  to  copy  in  chalk  and  pencil  the  other  half.  Then 
they  are  ready  to  carve. 

They  are  very  anxious  to  begin  with  the  cutting  tools,  and  usually, 
unless  they  are  watched  carefully,  will  break  many  tools  in  the  beginning. 

Illustration  414 


Clay  Modeling  Department,  St.  Jamca  Doyn'  Guild  Night  School 
The  dcaigni  on  the  w«ll»  are  made  by  the  boy»— Clay  box  io  the  bade  ground. 


This  must  be  prevented  in  case  of  malicious  damage  by  punishments,  which 
must  be  carried  out  and  enforced  from  the  beginning.  If  pupils  damage  each 
other's  v.ork.  see  that  the  ofTender  is  removed.      Ever}'  one  is  surprised  at 


376 


Various  Applications 


the  beautiful  product  that  can  be  made  almost  from  the  beginning  by  some 
of  these  boys,  who  seem  from  appearance  to  lack  all  capacity. 

The  boys  must  also  be  encouraged  to  make  things  for  them- 
selves as  soon  as  possible.  They  should  be  given  blanks  for  fur- 
niture, and  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  few  pieces  of  work  in  the  room  for  the 
puipls  to  see,  similar  to  the  work   illustrated   in   Nos.    346,    348   and   416. 


Illustrations  415-416 


Choirs  Designed  and  Carved  by  Xorinul  Class 


From  the  beginning  almost,  boys  above  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age  can  be- 
gin making  mirror  frames,  chairs,  brackets,  settees,  etc.  When  a  few  in 
the  class  have  realized  the  value  of  these  things,  you  will  see  a  wonderful 
spirit  diffused  among  the  pupils,  and  there  is  great  pride  on  all  sides  in  be- 


longing to  the  school. 


^^'e  have  found  it  one  of  the  best  plans  in  conaucting  this  work,  to  al- 
low the  boys  to  carve  blanks  that  are  made  up  afterwards  into  chairs,  settees, 


special  Schools  377 

hat  racks,  mirrors  and  so  on,  and  then  dispose  of  the  work  if  possible  l)y 
sale,  deducting  the  cost  of  the  materials  and  giving  the  boy  the  product  of 
his  labor.  For  instance,  if  a  chair  blank  costs  $3,  and  putting  together 
and  polishing  cost  $2  more,  it  will  make  the  chair  cost  about  $5,  which 
chair,  properly  carved,  will  sell  for  $10  or  $12.  If  the  chair  is  sold — and  we 
can  usually  find  customers  for  work  of  this  character — the  boy  can  then  be 
paid  the  amount  above  the  cost  and  construction — $5  or  $7,  as  the  case 
may  be.  It  is  a  very  dull,  stupid  boy  who  cannot,  after  a  few  months,  make 
forms  and  do  carving  to  the  value  of  twenty-five  or  fifty  cents  a  night.  If  he 
does  work  of  this  character,  and  witli  good  materials  selected  and  superin- 
tended by  a  good  teacher,  who  sees  that  the  work  is  properly  constructed 
and  finished,  it  is  always  salable.  Value  is  put  into  the  raw  material.  It 
has  an  auction  value.  It  is  not,  like  the  feeble  amateur  work  produced 
in  some  places,  valueless.  A  nicely  enriched  chair  or  mirror  frame  or  hat 
stand  always  has  some  money  value  above  the  cost  of  lumber.  This  kind 
of  boy  is  usually  quick  in  appreciating  the  value  of  money,  and  I  know  of  no 
better  means  of  enabling  boys  to  realize  the  dignity  of  labor,  nor  a  better 
way  by  which  we  can  make  them  become  self-reliant  and  ambitious,  than  by 
giving  them  a  key  to  the  power  that  is  locked  up  within  them,  if  tlicy  use 
it  rightly. 

I  protest  against  the  stupid  idea  of  some  people  who  have  only  partly 
looked  into  these  matters,  and  who  will  sometimes,  because  this  work  is 
so  valuable  to  the  boys,  frequently  desire  to  make  a  charge  for  tuition; 
anything,  they  say, — five  or  ten  cents  a  lesson, — so  as  to  make  them  realize 
the  value  of  it.  These  are  foolish  people  invariably,  because  in  so  doing 
they  discourage  as  pupils  the  very  ones  desired  most.  In  these  classes  we 
usually  desire  the  very  pupils  who  are  not  willing  to  pay  for  the  lessons,  but 
who  would  rather  pay  the  five  cents  or  the  ten  cents  for  cigarettes  or  to- 
bacco, or  a  vicious  dime  novel.  The  good  boy  willing  to  pay  is  the  one 
able  to  get  along  without  so  much  help.  I  have  had  many  pupils,  seem- 
ingly most  hopeless  cases,  that  are  now  in  successful  business  for  them- 
selves, and  who  received  their  start  and  inspiration  from  the  methods  of 
these  night  schools. 

Retvarcfs  or  Prizes. — In  the  night  schools  and  vacation  classes  it  is 
very  useful  to  give  as  an  incentive  prizes  to  the  best  workers  at  the  end  of 
the  season.      The.se  may  consist  of  sets  of  tools,  sets  of  paints,  water  colors, 


I 
>- 

t- 

f- 
< 

a. 


■it 


-  y 


1-    y 

'^  I  h 

00  Ni 


,  .    >  -^  j5 


c  ;'Z 


Special  Schools  379 

drawing  materials  or  instruments  for  the  pupils  in  drawing  and  designing, 
and  sets  of  carving  tools  or  carpenter's  tools  for  the  carvers  and  wood 
workers.  Sometimes  we  allow  them  to  make  their  choice.  In  some  night 
schools  these  prizes  can  be  on  exhibition  part  of  the  time.  They  act  as 
wonderful  incentives  to  some  of  the  boys  who  desire  to  possess  them.  It 
is  perfectly  proper  to  make  use  of  these  means  to  encourage  them  to  form 
the  habit  of  work. 

Some  people,  of  course,  will  say  that  the  inspiration  should  come 
to  the  pupil  through  the  value  of  the  work  alone,  but  they  forget  that  the 
children,  through  lack  of  certain  ideas,  do  not  recognize  this  value,  and  that 
means  must  he  taken  to  get  the  habit  some  other  way.  This  industrial  hand- 
training,  especially  tho.se  kinds  that  engage  a  certain  amount  of  the  physi- 
cal energy  of  the  individual,  educates  both  the  mental  and  the  physical 
faculties.  The  mind  being  kept  constantly  active,  and  occupying  the  hand 
in  fashioning  various  forms,  the  time  passes  pleasurably.  and  the  pupil  grad- 
ually becomes  satisfied  and  contented  with  the  gratification  following  the 
work  itself,  a  contentment  that  pleasant  labor  and  work  always  produces. 

(/i)  VACATION'  SCHOOLS* 

These  have  been  conducted  in  connection  with  St.  James  Protestant 
r,piscopal  church  in  Philadelphia  every  summer  since  1886.  In  these  vaca- 
tion schools  boys  and  girls  work  together,  and  such  valuable  results  have 
been  obtained  that  the  idea  is  being  adopted  in  other  cities  and  towns  at 
home  and  abroad.  By  this  means  large  numbers  of  children  can  be  kept 
off  the  streets  in  comfortable,  safe  quarters,  an<l  at  the  same  time  can  be  get- 
ting the  best  kind  of  training.  Classes  can  be  conducted  in  any  ordinary 
.school  room,  and  the  same  plant  described  for  the  night  schools  can  be  used. 

School  committees  and  others  in  authority  should  not  allow  teachers 
without  elementary  skill  and  art  knowledge  to  attempt  to  teach  the  children 
in  vacation  schools;  the  children  have  the  right  to  proper  instruction  in  art 
and  ufanual  work.  The  author  has  seen  many  classes  started  lately  by  well- 
meaning  but  ignorant  people,  where  much  harm  has  been  done  to  the  chil- 
dren through  wrong  instruction  and  loss  of  time.  During  the  past  summer 
several  cities  have  "taken  up"  the  vacation  work,  and  in  some  schools  the 
regular  teachers  have  been  employed,  and  the  class  rooms  thrown  open  to 


»  Further  particuL-ir.  <••  to  .uch  vacation  .chooU  and  night  Khool.  may  be  oblalnrJ  from  Mr.  W.  W.  1-  niller, 
Jr.,  Trcisurrr  St.Jamcn  noys"  Guild,  PhiLidclphia.  Pa. 


380  Various  Applications 

the  children,  who  have  simply  been  experimented  with.  Too  many  teachers 
tliink  that  because  there  are  plenty  of  children,  they  can  dally  with  them  and 
test  their  own  stupidity  by  consuming  the  child's  time  that  is  so  valual^ile  at 
this  vital  period  of  life.  In  some  classes,  kindergarten  work  has  been  given 
to  grown  pupils,  boys  15  years  of  age  have  been  seen  doing  paper  cutting 
and  weaving  or  stick-laying,  work  with  toothpicks  and  potato  cubes,  whit- 
tling, etc. 

When  teachers  at  good  salaries  are  employed  to  do  work  of  this  char- 
acter, and  expensive  plants  for  wood-working  are  used  and  instruction  given 
to  a  few  only, — the  mob  of  children  being  really  only  employed  with  "busy 
work," — it  shows  crass  ignorance  of  elementary  education.  It  is  still  the 
idea  of  many  that  as  long  as  the  children  are  cutting  paper,  making  clay 
cubes  or  whittling,  that  they  are  getting  art  and  manual  training.  It  is  a 
mistaken  and  false  idea  and  one  that  will  work  out  in  the  course  of  a  very 
short  period.  The  children  will  tire  very  quickly  of  these  "occupations," 
and  in  some  of  these  false  manual-training  vacation  schools  the  attendance 
will  diminish  very  rapidly  instead  of  increasing.  Right  methods  of  art, 
manual  training  and  nature  study  should  be  used,  that  fascinate  and  at  the 
same  time  elevate  the  children,  and  that  will  produce  lasting  benefit,  instead 
of  merely  consuming  the  pupils'  vital  energy  and  time  during  this  formative 
period  of  growth. 

The  art  and  manual-training  methods  described  in  this  book  are  valuable 
for  their  feasibility  of  application  in  common  rooms  and  school  buildings, 
no  heavy  plant  or  changes  being  required.  These  methods  prove  so  inter- 
esting to  the  children  that  they  eagerly  flock  to  the  summer  schools,  when 
other  systems  will  not  hold  their  attention. 

(c)  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  AND  SUMMER  SCHOOLS 

In  Norma.1  Schools,  and  in  all  training  schools  for  teachers,  the 
applicability  of  these  methods  is  especially  marked.  Probably  it  is  only  a 
question  of  a  short  time  before  these  ways  of  correlating  art,  real  manual 
training  and  nature  study  with  other  school  work  will  become  a  prominent 
feature  in  such  institutions.  That  they  greatly  need  improvement  along 
these  lines  is  apparent.  The  public  demands  the  new  education,  and  as  fast 
as  the  methods  herein  are  mastered  by  competent  teachers,  there  will  be 
lucrative  positions  for  them.     The  results  of  these  methods  of  training  speak 


Special  Schoob 


381 


for  themselves.     The  art,  manual  training  and  nature-study  idea  is  right; 
the  masses  are  hound  to  have  it. 

Besides  the  classes  for  teachers  from  the  IMiila<lelphia  public  schools, 
private  normal  classes  are  conducted  at  my  studios  or  at  my  private  summer 
schools.  The  time  needeil  to  qualify  teachers  to  apply  the  new  methods 
in  elementary  schools  is  surprisingly  brief  for  those  who  really  apply  them- 
selves.    Not    the    least    remarkal)le    characteristic  of  these  methods  is  the 

Illustrations  417-418 

r 


L    ^. 


SccuiiJ  ^Ui^k 


Panel  for  Front  of  Dtjsk.    Can  vd  by  pupil  of  tummcr  ftchool. 
Adirondacks 


facility  with  which  they  can  be  mastered,  even  by  adults  who  have  never 
had  any  art  instruction  or  manual  training.  Sometimes  such  adults  make 
better  teachers  than  others  who  have  to  undo  tlicir  previous  training.  Tor 
elementary  school  teachers,  a  course  of  30  lessons  each  in  manual  training 
.Irawing.  modeling  and  carving,  duly  rotated,  and  accompanied  by  pmpcr 
practice  at  home,  is  found  to  be  suflicient.  though  more  thorough  training 
of  course  has  its  compensating  advantages. 


382 


Various  Applications 


Summer  Schools  for  both  teachers  and  younger  pupils  in  the  country 
also  prove  very  attractive.  Plate  Thirty-six  gives  a  glimpse  of  such  a  class 
at  the  Adirondack  summer  school,  which  is  further  referred  to  at  the  close 
of  Chapter  Y  of  this  section.  The  summer  school  or  institute  is  growing 
in  favor,  and  for  such  institutions  these  methods  are  peculiarly  adapted. 

Illustration  419 


Children  Modeling  Vase  Forms — Summer  School 


This  picture,  and  also  the  one  used  for  the  initial  to  Chapter  Five,  were 
made  at  my  summer  school  in  the  Adirondacks.  The  work  is  sometimes 
done  in  the  open  air  and  sometimes  in  the  studio,  according  to  the  weather. 
The  vase  and  jar  forms  are  modeled  by  hand  entirely  and  then  decorated. 
Large  jardinieres,  two  or  three  feet  high,  can  be  made  this  way.  These  jars 
are  fired  at  a  pottery  and  can  be  painted  several  colors  and  glazed.  The 
firing  is  very  hard,  and  only  a  few  colors  can  stand  it,  but  fine  tints  of 
mazarine  blue,  brown,  green,  vellow  and  white  can  be  made,  and  for  decora- 


Special  Schools 


383 


tive  purposes  these  strong  uiulerglaze  colors  are  very  appropriate.  Flower 
and  innl)relia  stands,  urns,  dishes,  tiles,  door  weights,  etc.,  and  a  variety  of 
other  forms  and  all  kinds  of  pottery  can  be  made.  These  afTonl  ample 
opportunity  for  original  design,  or  suggestions  may  be  seen  in  bric-a-l)rac 
stores.  Beautiful  examples  of  this  kind  of  work  can  be  seen  in  Japanese 
stores;  many  of  their  quaint  tlragons  and  idols  are  made  of  colored  clay  tired. 
Work  of  this  kind  is  a  great  help  in  arousing  the  interest  of  children. 
The  forms  are  a  cliange  from  making  tiles  or  the  like,  and  the  pupils  will 
work  with  renewed  interest.  To  completely  make  a  vase  and  decorate  it 
requires  continuetl  ajiplication. 

Illustration  420 


.Moilcliug  Uic  UuB  Irulu  Lilc— bummer  School 


> 

(/) 

I 
>- 

s 

H 
u 

•J 
a. 


o  •Bt. 


LU 


^  o 


E.5 

^   3 

rt  0 
^« 


•-  n 


CHAPTER  IV 


Other  Uses  for 
Art,  Manual  Training; 
and  Nature  Study 
Illustration  431 


(<j)  DECORATING  THE  SCHOOL  ROOM 

1^.  XDE.WOR    FROM   THE   BEGIN- 
niiig  t(j  make  the  school  room  or  the 
class    room    attractive.     The  mind  is 
intluenccd    hy    its   environment.     Do 
not  let  that  environment,  especially  of 
the  young,  he  blank  walls.      But  it  is 
not  necessary  that  \vc  should  have  the 
greatest    masterpieces    of    Greek  art. 
the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  the  Venus 
uf  Melos.  etc..  in  the  kindergarten  and 
primary    school.       Art    forms    alone, 
without     the     proper    exercise     and 
proper    studies,    are  as  powerless  to 
elevate  the  mind  as  it  is  for  a  person 
to  lift  himself  hy  his  own  hoot-straps. 
But  it  is  possible  for  the  average  teacher  to  make  the  class  rooms  more 
beautiful  than  they  are  at  present  by  ( i )  decoration  with  natural  forms  and 
things    that    can    be    readily    procured    by    any    intelligent    teacher,    and 
(2)  with  simple  art  works  that  little  children  can  understand.     There  is  no 
reason  why  ordinary  school  rooms,  in  being  painted,  shoidd  not  have  bor- 
ders or  dadoes  painted  illustrating  simple  patterns  of  the  best  styles.     Pro- 
vide shelves,  or  closets  with  glass  doors,  that  could  be  filled  with  interesting 
»  (385) 


Under^laze  pottery  and    fnelal  plaque  made    i 
Decorative  Art  Club,  Philadelphia 


386  Various  Applications 

objects  desired  by  the  children  and  selected  by  the  teacher.   Do  not  allow 
trash  to  accumulate. 

In  our  school  rooms  we  find  that  the  walls  can  very  soon  be  decorated 
with  attractive  designs  made  for  all  kinds  of  purposes  and  with  models,  some 
of  which  are  reproductions  of  the  best  art  works  of  great  artists.  These 
help  to  furnish  rooms  very  nicely  and  serve  as  inspiration  to  the  pupils  also. 
Pictures  in  this  look  show  how  attracti\e  the  school  room  mav  be  thus 
made  with  samples  of  the  best  work  of  the  pupils  in  drawing,  modeling  and 
carving.  Such  work  accumulates  so  rapidly  there  is  never  any  trouble 
about  decorating  our  school  rooms.  A  great  variety  of  charts  useful  for 
school  purposes,  as  indicated  in  Illustrations  397  to  404.  are  not  without 
some  degree  of  beauty.  They  are  certainly  better  than  walls  unadorned, 
and  also  give  the  school  room  an  air  of  "business"  that  is  quite  attractive  to 
young  and  old. 

The  artists  and  good  people  who  are  now  beginning  to  decorate  the 
school  rooms  with  great  art  works  ought  to  be  influenced  to  use  instead 
work  that  is  more  suited  to  the  minds  of  the  children,  not  far  above  their 
powers  of  appreciation.  One  who  has  heard  the  remarks  of  the  children 
and  teachers  about  the  broken  Venus  and  several  other  statues  of  a  similar 
character  during  the  past  ten  years,  knows  that  they  are  not  being  impressed 
as  a  great  many  persons  think.  Instead  they  are  too  often  forming  a  dislike, 
that  will  continue  through  life,  to  models  and  forms  which  might  otherwise 
have  been  a  joy  and  a  pleasure  to  them  in  later  years.  Purcel  and  Bach  and 
Handel  were  great  musicians,  but  all  the  same  you  cannot  make  small  chil- 
dren understand  or  love  their  fugues.  It  is  a  matter  of  cultivation.  So  it  is 
with  art  forms.  You  can,  however,  by  wrong  methods,  form  a  dislike  that 
will  become  ingrained  and  perhaps  do  a  great  deal  of  damage,  perverting 
some  who  might  have  been  otherwise  influenced. 

There  should  be  more  endeavor  by  teachers,  with  the  aid  of  their  pupils, 
to  do  with  the  school  room  or  class  room  as  they  do  at  hoiue.  Encourage 
the  pupils  to  decorate  the  school  room  with  flowers  at  certain  seasons,  and 
with  branches  of  foliage  at  others.  Flowers  in  the  commonest  kinds  of  cups 
or  vessels  are  beautiful  at  all  times,  and  when  50  or  60  children  are  gathered 
together,  can  usually  be  procured  without  difficulty.  It  is  a  very  easy  mat- 
ter to  grow  things  in  cotiimon  wooden  boxes,  or  tins,  for  that  matter, 
although  of  course  flower  pots  are  better.     There  are  a  very  few  school 


Decorating  the  Schoolroom 


387 


rooms  in  wliich  there  is  not  light  enough  at  some  window  to  cherish  some 
kind  of  ()lant.  This  should  he  a  ])art  of  the  work  of  the  scliool,  am!  very 
soon  the  windows  can  heconiL-  i)Owers  instead  of  the  tlreary  places  they  are 
at  present.  The  same  is  true  with  regard  to  aquariums.  They  are  very 
cheap,  and  a  small,  good  a<|uarium  is  a  revelation  run!  a  joy  to  pupils. —  I  do 
not  mean  a  neglected  one.  This  again  is  part  of  the  work  of  tiie  school. 
Objects  of  this  character  in  the  school  should  be  kept  in  the  best  pos- 
sible condition. 

.\11  depends  on  the  teacher,  the  living  personality  that  is  in  contact  w  ith 
the  pupil  so  many  hours  each  day.      if  the  teacher  is  vulgar  and  coarse,  the 

Illustration  422 


Undirrj^lnzc  INitlcry  l''nnn» 
Made  by  mcmbcrn  of  private  cl.i»s.     W<irk  nf  lliit  chnraclcr  i>  louchrtl  upnn  on  piiKc  jSj. 


attempts  at  <lccoralion  will  be  similar.  Energy  and  force  must  be  spent  to 
elevate  the  teacher.  The  o|)ening  and  broa<lcning  of  tiie  teacher's  mind 
will  mean  the  better  opening  and  expanding  of  the  chiM's  mind.  I  believe 
in  the  use  of  natural  objects  in  the  school.      It  is  true  that  they  .soon  become 


388 


Various  Applications 


"trash"  ami  "truck"  in  the  hands  of  unskillful  teachers,  but  that  does  not 
deter  niv  advocacy  of  nature  forms  and  nature  study  (along  with  art  and 
manual  training)  as  one  of  the  best  means  to  get  art  and  art  ideas  into  the 
pupils,  to  implant    ideas    of    the    beautiful,    of  order  and  of  system.     The 

Illustration  423 


Swi-^  iir  swcili^tt  Curving 

The  pupil  is  carving  a  box,  in  the  style  similar  to  the  Swiss  or  Swedish  carving  that  is  seen.  The  tools  are  held 
in  the  hand  almost  like  an  engraving  tool.  The  form  to  be  carved  is  made  solid  and  is  held  in  the  hand  or  is  supported 
on  a  table,  and  by  means  of  the  tools  the  patterns  are  incised  and  slightly  carved.  If  original  and  well  selected 
patterns  are  drawn,  various  kinds  of  valuable  small  things  can  be  made.  This  work  is  not  without  some  value 
educationally,  but  is  feeble  for  educational  purposes  compared  with  real  carving. 


greatest  lessons  we  can  learn  are  printed  in  things,  common  things,  not  alone 
on  or  in  art  works,  and  this  is  said  without  prejudice  to  art  works.  We 
should  get  through  nature  the  right  perception  of  the  beauty  of  art  works. 

Too  many  think  that  "works  of  art"  and  their  contemplation  are  the  best 
means  of  education  and  training  in  this  direction.  Fortunately  nature  has 
made  this  impossible.  We  must  read  and  listen  to  the  Almighty  voice 
printed  in  and  on  nature,  the  eye  must  see  its  wonders  and  the  heart  feel  a 
response,  before  the  smaller  art  creations  can  touch  us.  This  attained,  we 
will  be  able  to  enjoy  those  lessons  also. 


Backward  Pupils 


3S9 


(b)  For  Backivdrd  Pupils x\\e  methods  outlined  herein  prove  to  l)e 
of  marvelous  utility.  We  do  not  refer  here  to  the  feei)le-minded,  hut  to  the 
very  consi(leral)]e  proportion  of  children  in  every  large  school  wlio  are  liack- 
ward  compared  to  the  majority  of  the  scholars.  \'ery  often  these  pupils 
who  appear  so  backward  mentally  are  especially  apt  in  responding  to  art 
methods,  real  manual  training  and  nature  study.  The  intellect  of  these 
children  is  slow  an<l  hard  to  reach  through  the  eye  and  ear,  yet  if  they  are 
taught  to  use  their  hands  and  to  develop  the  faculty  of  learning  through  the 
touch  and  muscular  sense,  the  results  are  often  surprising.  These  are  the 
kind  of  pupils  that  can  best  learn  by  ■'doing."  In  many  cities,  the  larger 
schools  have  a  special  room  for  backward  pupils,  and  with  very  little  expense 
it  could  be  equippe<l  for  drawing,  designing,  modeling  and  carving. 

Properly  taught  in  correlation  with  the  other  school  work,  these  meth- 
ods will  develop  a  large  proportion  of  such  pupils  into  reasonably  briglit  and 
capable  young  people.  In  many  cases,  the  result  will  be  to  make  a  useful, 
self-sustaining  member  of  society  out  of  an  individual  who  otiierwise  may 
become  a  charge  in  some  pul)lic  institution.     There  is  here  a  large  humani- 


lllustratlun  424 


.V  Carvid   I'.iiicl 
Dciigned  and  carved  by  a  teacher,  member  of  the  Adirondack  lummer  •chool. 


tarian  object  to  be  subserved  by  these  methods,  which  touches  one  of 
the  sore  spots  in  our  educational  system.  Experience  v.ith  children  of  this 
type  emphasizes  the  great  importance  of  beginning  their  art  and  manual 
traininjr  education  at  an  carlv  age.     The  nis.iiit  nr  growii^cr  period  in  back- 


390  Various  Applications 

ward  children  is  the  time  al  which  they  can  best  be  reached  by  any  method 
of  development.  A  whole  volume  might  be  written  on  this  one  subject,  but 
it  could  not  more  strongly  emphasize  the  importance  of  this  application  of 
these  methods. 

(i')  Feeble- Minded  and  Insane.— I  have  found  manual  training  espe- 
cially suited  for  some  classes  of  patients  in  insane  hospitals.  E.xperiments 
with  large  numbers  show  that  it  is  an  excellent  means  of  providing  these 
classes  with  pleasant  occupation.  For  employment  that  is  beneficial  and 
at  the  .same  time  interesting,  nothing  takes  the  place  of  art  and  industrial 
training.  There  is  a  great  tendency  with  some  patients  to  be  very  moody 
and  to  brood  o\er  imaginary  or  fancied  troitbles  and  ills.  In  cases  of  this 
kind  it  is  es])eciallv  important  that  the  patients  should  be  provided  with  an 
occupation  that  will  be  sufficiently  attractive  to  please  them,  and  at  the  same 
time  interest  them  sufficiently  to  make  them  lose  themselves  in  their  work 
for  the  time  Vicing. 

This,  carried  on  to  the  stage  where  the  habit  of  work  is  formed,  is  decid- 
edly beneficial.  The  patients  have  something  to  think  about  even  when 
they  are  not  working.  They  take  renewed  interest  in  their  walks  around 
the  grounds.  They  notice  the  variety  of  forms  in  flowers  and  leaves,  insects 
and  other  natural  objects.  The}'  take  especial  delight  in  imitating  these 
forms  in  clay  and  wood.  Even  if  the  patients  cannot  be  cured,  there  are 
sometimes  cases  when  their  moody  ideas  can  be  changed,  and  instead  of  their 
dwelling  on  their  troubles  they  can  be  switched  ofi^  onto  the  consideration 
of  things  that  will  do  them  less  harm.  Good  results  always  follow  when 
the}'  become  sufficiently  interested  in  the  product  of  their  hands.  That  it 
is  possible  for  them  to  do  elaborate  and  sometimes  beautiful  and  useful  work 
is  proved  by  the  illustration  herewith, — No.  425.  To  get  pupils  of  this 
character  to  settle  down  for  two  or  tliree  hours  to  one  thing  is  an  advantage, 
and  this  can  readily  be  done  if  the  right  kind  of  work  is  given  them  and  they 
are  kejit  interested. 

Of  course  there  will  be  a  percentage  of  failures.  Some  give  up  the 
work,  some  become  discouraged  very  readily,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases 
they  are  very  willing  to  try  again.  I  have  had  some  such  patients  who  have 
worked  with  a  steadiness  and  persistence  which  was  surprising  and  who 
have  produced,  and  still  produce,  things  of  beauty  and  value. 

The  late  Dr  Kirkbride,  the  great  expert  on  insanity,  and  director  of  the 


Feeble-Minded  and  Insane 


39  J 


Pennsylvania  hospital  for  the  insane,  under  whose  suggestion  I  first  experi- 
mented in  this  work,  repeatedly  assured  nie  that  it  was  very  heneficiai  to  the 
patients.  I  have  very  much  regretted  my  inability  to  continue  experiments 
in  this  direction  as  much  as  could  be  wisheil,  owing  to  a  pressure  of  duties 
in  other  places.     If    the    authorities    and    managers  of  these  hospitals  and 

Illustration  42; 


I'otUry   l•■orlll^ 
IX.-si|;n<.'d  and  modeled  by  inmaUs  of  Ihi-  Pennsylvania  ho>|>iUil  (or  llii  insane. 


institutions  will  only  introduce  some  of  these  methods  under  good  instruc- 
tors, I  am  convinced  that  they  will  be  more  than  repaid  by  tlie  benefits 
accruing  to  the  patients. 

The  instructors,  of  course,  will  have  to  pursue  a  dilTerent  plan  from  that 
in  tlie  ordinarv  schools. — the  dispositions  of  the  patients  must  he  studied, 
and.  above  all.  they  must  be  interested  in  the  beginning,  even  if  the  instruc- 
tor is  obliged  at  first,  for  a  series  of  lessons,  to  do  most  of  the  work,  'i  hese 
pupils,  like  others,  learn  directly  by  observation,  and  when  they  have  seen 
a  thing  done  a  number  of  times  they  are  more  ready  and  better  i>leased  to 
undertake  it  themselves.  l"mi)hasize  the  nature  study  or  work.  Like  very 
little  children  thev  are  soon  interested,  and  I  liave  ha<l  repeatedly  very  pleas- 


392 


Various  Applications 


ant  times  with  them  wlien  they  have  simply  been  ol)serving  the  work  antl 
making  comments  upon  it.  Sooner  or  later  a  disposition  to  try  it  for  them- 
selves is  developed.  Allow  others,  even  though  they  do  not  work,  to  be 
spectators  occasionally.  Even  this  is  good  for  the  unfortunates.  A  special 
treatise  could  be  written  on  this  phase  of  the  subject,  but  these  few  sugges- 
tions must  suffice. 

Many  people  outside  of  insane  hospitals  suffer  from  disintegration  of 
ideas  and  lack  of  thought.     They  have  only  partial  ideas,  and  they  cannot 

Illustration  42G 


CoiiLl.ilion  ut  Drawing  and  Nature  titudy 
By  one  of  the  children  at  the  Adirondack  summer  school. 


dwell  on  them  consecutively  very  long.  Work  of  the  character  herein  advo- 
cated is  a  great  means  of  preventing  such  disintegration  of  ideas,  and  a  help 
to  make  people  able  to  think  consecutively  and  for  continuous  periods.  This 
is  quite  an  important  thing  for  all  grades  of  people,  from  the  brightest  to 
those  who  suffer  the  most  in  these  institutions.  I  have  been  led  to  think 
from  my  experience  that  there  are  more  feeble-minded  people  at  large  than 
in  the  various  institutions. 


Truant  Schook  393 

(ci)  In  Reformatory  Institutions  the  methods  treated  of  in  this 
work  may  he  ajjplied  witli  guud  clYcct.  I'lider  instruction  of  the  rifjht  kind, 
much  of  the  good  in  character  l)uildin<j  that  we  get  in  niglit  scliools  with 
"tough"  boys  will  be  obtained  with  "children  of  a  larger  growth"  who  com- 
prise the  inmates  of  reform  schools  and  similar  institutions.  Many  of  the 
occupants  of  such  places  are  capable  of  reforming  their  character  under 
proper  conditions.  This  will  seldom  be  done  by  either  punishment  or 
preaching,  but  may  be  accomplished  by  arousing  in  these  men  or  women  a 
sense  of  their  abilities  and  a  capacity  to  use  those  abilities  in  making  an 
honest  living. 

To  thus  develop  character  and  impart  a  training  that  may  assist  in  ob- 
taining a  respectable  lixclihood,  is  the  object  to  be  sought  in  reformatory 
institutions.  It  is  l)etter  and  ciicaiier  for  society  to  do  this  wherever  pos- 
sible than  to  turn  out  criminals  who  will  constantly  prey  upon  the  commu- 
nity. I  know  from  experience  the  l)eneficent  results  of  i)roi)cr  art  methods 
and  real  manual  training  when  applied  to  the  unfortunates  referred  to.  espe- 
cially when  supplemented  by  the  teaching  of  trades.  Such  practical  educa- 
tion is  evidently  to  become  an  increasingly  potent  factor  in  the  irealment  (jf 
that  large  class  of  offenders  who  need  reformatory  influences  more  than 
summary  punishment. 

(e)  Truant  Schools,  Etc.  —This  method  is  the  only  safe  plan  for 
truant  schools  and  special  classes  for  the  idle  and  vicious.  These  children 
are  sometimes  "smart"  and  clever,  but  are  beyond  the  control  of  tlie  ordinary 
teacher.  I  visited  a  truant  school  only  a  few  days  ago  and  found  the  children 
sitting  in  front  of  desks  and  the  teacher  "talking"  to  them;  it  was  about  lo 
a.  m.,  and  some  of  the  boys  already  looked  "Ijored,"  with  three  hours  more 
to  stay  in  school.  I  felt  like  being  a  truant  myself.  I  saw  failure  in  the  face 
of  the  teacher,  failure  in  the  air  of  the  room  and  rebellion  and  hate  in  the 
eyes  of  the  pupils.  Vou  may  lead  a  horse  to  water,  but  you  camiot  make 
him  drink,  and  you  cannot  make  an  unwilling  cliild  a  good  pupil  by  "nag- 
ging" his  mind  or  l)y  forcing  him  to  do  something  he  dislikes. 

My  experience  with  this  class  of  children  has  been  such  that  I  have 
always  had  full  classes,  and  when  the  children  realize  the  nature  of  the  work 
they  bring  others.  There  are  always  jjupils  at  the  door  waiting  for  the 
vacant  places.  Why  is  this?  Simply  because  the  children  like  the  work,  they 
have  an  intense  desire  to  be  doing  things,  to  be  moving  quick,  to  be  making 


394 


Various  Applications 


a  noise,  and  to  be  active:  it  is  the  normal  state  of  liealtliy  boys  and  girls.  I 
find  that  boys. — rough,  truant,  coarse,  vicious  boys  if  you  will, — like  zvork, 
if  it  is  pleasurable.     These  boys  work   so   hard    in   my   classes  in  the  night 

Illustration  427 


i^mm" 


Alt  .Mutal  Work 

These  designs  have  been  beaten  into  the  metal  repousse;  the  plaques  were  made  from  sheet  brass  and  German 
silver. 


schools  or  vacation  schools,  that  when  the  room  is  warm,  the  perspiration 
drips  from  their  chins  or  eyelashes.  Pupils  of  this  description  can  be  con- 
trolled, held  and  developed  only  by  working  in  this  direction.  Then,  in  the 
course  of  time,  if  they  are  treated  rightly,  they  almost  invariably  become 
biddable,  responsive,  studious  and  self-controlled. 


(/)  MI.SCELLANEOUS  APPLICATION.S 

Art  in  Metal  Work. — No  one  can  see  the  mass  of  crude  and  vulgar 
silver  forms  now  being  made  and  sold  since  that  metal  has  become  cheap, 
without  feeling  the  depths  to  which  handicraft  and  art  have  fallen.     Hardly 


Miscellaneous 


395 


any  one  looks  for  beauty  or  fitness  on  the  forms  purchased.  If  it  is  cheap, 
and  stamjied  with  tiie  niaj^ic  word  "  sterling;,"  it  is  enou^ii.  I  venture  to 
say  that  very  few  people  reading  this  article  can  even  state  the  style  or  kind 
of  ornament  used  on  the  various  forms  they  have  purchased  in  this  line,  or 
even  remember  of  what  the  pattern  consists.  Silver,  copper,  brass,  iron. 
German  silver,  pewter,  are  ])erfect  mediums  of  expression  if  real  art  and 
handicraft  are  used  upon  them.  And  the  workers  in  these  metals  and  the 
owners  of  the  forms  can  have  their  minds  expanded  and  e.xalted  if  right 
ideas  jircvail. 

Repousse  and  Hammered  Work.  — \'ery  little  plant  is  required  for 
producing  the  most  beautiful  and  exquisite  work  in  reinnisse  and  hammered 
work  in  metal.  No  medium  will  make  a  l)cttcr  return  in  real  maiuial 
training,  embodying  thought  in  material.     .\s  illustrated.  No.  4_'7,  plaques, 


Illustration  42b 


Art  Metal   Work 
The  t»n  bov»  on  the  kft  Rre  nnncallnu  ;i  ineul  |.l:.Mu.-  with  hand  l.lu.t.    Thi.  pLiquc  hu.  iH-en  hclcn  nut 
of  »  H^it  puHcr  l.r;.ii».    -1  hi-  oihir  l«,v  i»  .  hu.intf  u  ae.itfn  on  a  metal  va«;  ;  the  vmc  ■>   tilled  with  Imrd 
cement  un*!  il  i^  li:imiii.t.-.l  uimn  .i  •..iiid  W.iy. 


crumb  trays,  I)rush  backs,  vase  forms  and  a  variety  of  other  metal  shapes, 
can  l)e  embellished.  Sheet  metal  of  various  kinds  can  be  used,  and  by 
means  of  i)ntii  1u-s  on  cement  it  is  beaten  into  siiape.     Depressions  and  eleva- 


396 


Various  Applications 


tions  are  made,  and  then  the  surface  decorated  from  both  sides.  Napkin 
rings,  salt  cellars,  pitchers  of  varioits  kinds,  and  an  endless  array  of  dishes 
can  be  made  of  brass,  copper,  pewter,  German  silver,  or  sterling  silver,  and 
beautifully  decorated  as  desired.  All  forms  illustrated  have  been  made  by 
pupils  working  in  some  of  our  schools,  and  they  are  given  simplv  as  ex- 
amples of  what  can  be  done.  The  technical  application  of  this  work  can- 
not be  explained  here.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  process  in  metal  chasing 
and  repousse  work,  and  some  of  the  most  beautiful  art  work  of  all  periods 
consists  of  hand  work  of  this  kind. 

For  Parents. — One  application  of  these  manual-training  methods  in 
art,  real  manual  training  and  nature  study,  that  has  not  yet  been  touched 

Illustrations  429-430 


.Models  in  Cluy 
Made  by  l)oys  of  the  tjr;imiti;ir  gr:ide. 


upon  is  their  use  by  parents  in  teaching  their  own  children.  The  method  is 
so  simple  that  any  bright  father  or  mother  can  accomplish  much  good  by 
training  their  children  along  the  lines  herein  indicated,  so  far  as  the  parent 
may  be  able  to  do  so  from  a  careful  reading  of  this  work.  All  educators 
realize  that  one  of  the  great  obstacles  to  l)etter  results  in  elementary  schools 
is  the  fact  that  parents  so  often  utterly  fail  to  make  any  reasonable  effort  to 
teach  their  own  children.  It  is  all  left  to  the  schools,  and  the  child's  home 
environment  is  often  such  as  to  counteract  much  of  the  best  effort  on  the  part 
of  school  teachers.     This  joint  responsibility  of  the  parent  and  of  the  teacher 


Miscellaneous 


397 


will  become  more  and  more  recognized  by  people  generally,  just  as  it  is 
already  recognized  by  experts  in  elementary  education.  Parents  are  usually 
averse  to  the  druilgery  of  teaching  their  ciiildrcn  in  the  ordinary  elementary 
studies  from  books,  but  these  same  parents  will  take  quite  as  much  pleasure 
as  will  their  children  in  rational  manual-training  drawing,  memory  work 
and  original  design  on  blackboarti  or  paper  or  in  clay  or  wood.  Some  of 
the  most  enthusiastic  advocates  of  these  methods  are  parents  who  have  taken 
up  the  work  in  this  way  with  their  own  children. 


Normul  Clans  Work — Carved  by  teacher 


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CHAPTER  V 


Suggfestions  for 
Art  Students 


X  E\-ERY  CONSIDERABLE  XUMBER 
of  pupils  there  are  some  who  desire  to  take 
up  art  and  to  make  it  their  life  work.  Some 
feel  that  they  liavc  capacity  in  this  direc- 
tion, and  some  that  they  have  a  taste  for 
art.  It  is  very  th.sappointint,'  to  many, 
after  attending  certain  art  schools  for  sev- 
eral years,  to  find  that  they  have  not  been 
working  in  the  right  direction,  that  they 
have  been  doing  superficial  work  instead 
of  work  calculated  to  give  them  real  art 
ability. 

Some  art  schools  will  keep  students  lor 
years  engaged  upon  such  work  as  copying 
or  studying  objects,  "normal  art  courses." 
with  geometric  work,  conventionalization 
of  tlowers,  designing  for  fabrics,  etc.  The 
students  find  out  ultimately  that  they 
slu>u]d  have  been  doing  real  drawing  from 
life  and  the  anticpie,  painting  and  modeling 
from  life;  an<l  that  they  should  have  l)ecn 
gaining  manual  de.xterity  and  experience  by  doing  artistic  work  of  this 
character  from  the  start.  In  some  schools  the  art  work  is  entirely  imitative: 
the  pupils  never  work  from  memory:  they  are  kept  busy  all  the  time  co|)ying 
objects,  casts,  models. 

Why  should  the  fine  art  schools  allow  numbers  of  ])upils  of  all  degrees 

(399) 


MoJclinu  a   \    i-« 
At  Adirondacks  summer  tkChcKil. 


400  Various  Applications 

of  capacity  to  join  their  classes?  Granting  that  3  per  cent,  or  even  5  per 
cent  of  these  pupils  become  finished  artists. — and  this,  I  think,  is  not  the 
case, — what  is  to  become  of  the  other  97  or  95  per  cent?  Should  they  not 
have  been  equipped  with  the  artistic  skill  necessary  to  enable  them  to  enter 
into  some  of  the  numerous  trades  or  vocations  that  require  hand  skill  and  a 
certain  amount  of  art  taste  and  judgment?  Do  antique  drawing,  life  paint- 
ing, sketching  and  other  imitative  methods  give  this  capacity?  I  claim  that 
they  do  not,  especially  as  many  only  attempt  this  work  after  reaching  adult 
life,  and  that  a  waste  of  time  for  the  greater  number  of  students  is  involved 
in  such  methods. 

Surely  these  are  not  the  correct  methods.  The  pupils  from  their  youth 
up  should  certainly  have  had  such  training  as  would  enable  them  to  enter 
the  fine-art  classes  equipped  with  suflicient  knowledge  to  indicate  whether 
they  are  fitted  for  the  business  before  them.  No  one  knows  better  than  the 
teachers  who  are  engaged  in  teaching  at  some  institutions  of  art,  the  incom- 
petency of  many  of  their  pupils.  In  some  cases  the  students  have  worked 
five,  six,  eight  and  ten  years,  and  are  no  more  advanced  in  practical  art  knowl- 
edge than  when  they  started.  Is  this  not  the  fault  of  the  teachers  and 
instructors  of  these  schools?  Should  not  they  advise  such  pupils  to  take  up 
pursuits  that  would  enable  them  to  make  a  living,  instead  of  tacitly  encourag- 
ing them  to  follow  the  fine  arts? 

These  are  simply  questions  and  statements  uttered  with  the  idea  of  com- 
pelling a  little  thought  on  the  subject.  I  for  one  know  how  difficult  it  is  to 
enter  the  higher  stages  of  the  fine  arts.  That  should  not  prevent  us,  how- 
ever, from  being  willing  to  discourage  pupils  who  from  the  first  show  lack 
of  adaptation  to  artistic  pursuits.  Some  of  our  institutions  to-day  have 
hundreds  of  pupils  who  will  never  amount  to  anything  in  the  fine  arts,  who 
will  waste  several  years,  and  after  all  be  obliged  to  take  up  some  other  line 
of  work.  If  better  educational  methods  were  used  in  the  elementary  schools, 
this  would  not  be  so  often  the  case. 

A  Great  Field  for  teachers, — 1  venture  to  suggest  to  all  with 
artistic  desires  the  wide  field  and  application  of  the  manual-training  and 
industrial-art  idea  in  education.  Of  course  I  know  by  experience  how  diffi- 
cult it  is  to  change  the  aim  of  many  students  who  start  out  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  becoming  great  artists.  They  invariably  find  their  level,  but  at  what 
loss  of  valuable  time  and  energy!  Michael  Angelo  did  not  consider  it  degrad- 


II 

2  '* 


?.f. 


=  2    = 


E  2  '/=) 


O  r. 


402  Various  Applications 

ing  to  design  costumes  and  ink  ])Ottles,  and  Raphael  and  many  of  the  best 
and  greatest  artists  engaged  in  various  minor  arts,  in  designing  and  working 
in  various  mediums  and  materials,  and  in  fact,  most  of  the  great  artists  of  the 
past  became  so  through  the  consummate  knowledge  they  had  of  ordinary 
processes  gained  by  years  of  experience. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  a  good  artisan  or  craftsman,  or  a  fine  teacher, 
should  be  spoiled  in  order  to  produce  a  feeble  artist.  Why  not,  if  we  cannot 
achieve  the  one,  become  the  other?  Be  assured  that  there  is  more  honor  and 
profit  in  it.  Nothing  is  more  dismal  to  himself  and  friends  than  the  whining 
of  a  feeble  or  poor  artist  "not  appreciated  by  this  coarse,  dollar-loving  age." 
Instead  of  displaying  that  spirit,  let  those  who  manifestly  can  never  become 
great  artists  realize  the  magnificent  opportunities  that  await  the  capable  and 
enthusiastic  teacher  of  art,  of  real  manual  training  and  nature  study. 

While  the  truly  great  artist  may  be  benefited  by  experience  in  teaching 
children  of  all  ages,  it  is  not  essential  that  teachers  of  these  natural  methods 
in  the  elementary  schools  shall  be  geniuses  in  art.  The  truth  is.  that 
far  more  teachers,  as  well  as  pupils,  have  a  fair  degree  of  capacity  for  the 
simpler  forms  of  art  than  has  been  recognized  heretofore.  This  has  been 
abundantly  demonstrated  by  the  high  average  product  obtained  from  many 
who  have  received  the  requisite  training  in  my  schools  during  the  past 
few  years. 

'-Preparing  for  Fine  Art  Work. — Just  as  in  the  elementary  work, 
we  give  the  hand  power  to  produce  automatically  and  unconsciousl\-  all  the 
simple  and  conventional  forms  used  in  design;  and  just  as  the  children  gain 
power  in  expressing  themselves  through  the  simple  forms  of  nature,  such  as 
leaves,  flowers,  shells,  fish,  birds  and  other  familiar  objects,  so,  in  the  higher 
branches  of  art  study,  the  mind  should  become  familiar,  as  far  as  practicable, 
w'ith  diverse  art  and  nature  forms  and  their  movements,  and  the  hand  should 
gain  facilit}-  and  dexterit_\-  in  reproducing  them. 

Some  will  say  that  this  is  not  necessary;  that  if  a  student  is  fond  of  land- 
scapes, for  instance,  it  is  not  essential  to  be  able  to  draw  the  figure  or  animals; 
or,  if  the  student  is  going  to  be  a  cattle  painter,  marine  views  or  water  need 
not  be  studied.  This  is  yielding  to  the  common  tendency  in  life  to  do  only 
the  things  w-e  like  and  not  the  things  which  are  best  for  us.  A  little  thought 
will  convince  any  one  that  the  wider  our  range  of  knowleilge  and  power  the 
better  will  be  the  individual  and  special  expression. 


Suggestions  for  Art  Students 


403 


After  a  certain  range  of  experience  has  been  gaineil  from  work  upon 
various  suhjects,  the  student  is  far  better  able  to  ileterniine  tlie  sul)jects  for 
whidi  lie  lias  tlie  most  hking,  and  in  wliicli  lie  can  express  himself  with  the 
most  power.  When  this  stage  is  reached,  then  it  is  right  to  specialize.  Until 
then,  however,  the  more  the  student  works  from  the  figure,  from  animals, 
from  landscape,  and  marine  views,  the  better.  Some  students  will  find  that 
they  have  more  power  rendering  form  than  color;  some  will  be  able  to  ex- 
Illustration  433 


Lani)iiCii|ir  P:iiMliii«  and  Druwini;  in  llic  Aillronihicks 
The  pupiU  •kclch  with  pencil  and  pninl  in  water  color  or  oil  colon. 


press  themselves  better  by  lines  than  by  light  and  shade:  some  will  be  more 
expert  in  clay  than  paint,  or  in  oil  colors  than  in  water  colors.  However 
this  may  be.  the  student  should  endeavor  to  get  control  of  each  end.  an<l 
shoulil  not  be  satisfied  until  a  certain  amount  of  |)ower  is  accpiired  in  the 
medium  or  method  in  which  he  is  most  deficient.  This  is  the  way  to  get  on 
in  the  conquest  of  weaknesses. 


Plate  Forty 


Ang:elo's  Sybil — Fresco  from  Sistine  Chapel 

This  IS  one  of  over  four  hundred  fig;urcs  painted  by  Michael  Ang^clo  in  his  composition  on  the  ceiling  ot  the 
Sistine  Ch;ipcl  at  Komc.  Some  of  the  fiL^ures  are  over  twenty  feet  high.  Words  iail  to  describe  the  beauty  and 
gr;uideur  ot  his  work.  It  is  chietly  remarkable  for  the  natural  ease,  grace  and  style  ot  the  tiirures,  the  \vonderf!ii 
and  energetic  movements  portrayed,  the  endless  variety  of  postures,  and  the  strength  of  all  the  figures.  Il  was 
as  though  he  had  demigoc's  in  his  mind,  and  in  the  heat  of  liis  genius  he  seemed  to  fling  these  colossal  and  beau- 
tiful beings  from  his  hands.  He  worked  with  remarkable  rapidity  and  speed  and  seemed  to  know  instinctively 
just  how  things  would  appear  on  the  painted  surface  or  in  marble. 

U04) 


Suggestions  for  Art  Students  405 

Fitting  for  the  cMinor  Arts  c^/50.— Students  wlio  <lo  not  succeed 
in  tlie  lii,L,dier  brandies  of  art  should  undoubtedly  l)e  alile  to  do  so  in  tlie  minor 
arts.  The  fact  that  a  man  cannot  succeed  in  painting  a  portrait  or  landscape 
is  no  reason  why  he  should  not  be  very  successful  at  dcsig-nins:,  carvint,'  or 
modeling,  or  in  some  of  the  many  diverse  industrial  arts  in  metal,  stone,  clay 
and  wood.  1  know  a  ])ainter  who  worked  for  twehe  years  producing  very 
poor  pictures,  yet  when  through  chance  he  became  familiar  with  the  opera- 
tions and  art  of  metal  work,  produced  some  very  beautiful  and  valuable 
results,  and  is  now  far  more  qualified  than  before  to  make  a  living. 

All  art  students  are  supposed  to  have  a  taste  for  the  beautiful.  This  is 
the  primary  reason  that  induces  them  to  enter  upon  art  studies.  Such  taste 
and  judgment  must  enable  them  to  succeed  in  some  of  the  minor  arts  if  thev 
fail  in  the  higher  branches. 

All  students,  then,  should  follow  a  course  that  will  give  them  manual 
training  and  artistic  power  in  any  pursuit  they  may  adopt.  The  proper 
training  for  art  institutions  to  give  shoultl  be  to  fit  all  their  students  (not  a 
small  number  of  them  only),  to  make  a  better  living.  Tlio.se  incapable  of 
pursuing  the  higher  branches  of  art  by  no  means  need  be  failures,  but  should 
become  good  artistic  workers  in  the  various  trades.  Their  artistic  training 
should  enable  them  to  make  the  low  and  common  in  any  pursuit  of  business 
more  beautiful  and  refined.  This  implies  more  profit  and  success  in  what- 
ever vocation  is  finally  adopted,  as  well  as  more  [)lcasure  ami  happiness,  for 
the  great  call  in  the  world  of  industry  to-day  is  for  the  artist-artisan. 

The  following  suggestions  and  pictures  are  otTered  with  a  view  of  help- 
ing, in  some  of  the  various  branches  of  art  work,  students  who  will  ultimately 
join  the  ])ropcr  institutions  for  their  higher  training. 

Charcoal  DraJi^ing  is  one  of  the  first  processes  in  art,  it  being  one  of 
the  best  mediums  of  e.xpression  that  we  possess.  .\  piece  of  charred  wooil, 
properly  handled,  on  paper,  will  give  all  the  form,  all  the  light  and  shade,  all 
the  te.xture,  any  one  can  de.sire.  To  attain  some  of  this  jwwer.  a  student 
must  use  charcoal  for  some  time,  drawing  decorative  forms  of  the  various 
styles,  then  portions  of  the  figure  and  from  the  antitjue,  and  from  this  to  the 
entire  figure,  or  its  parts,  from  life. 

Tew  materials  are  re(|uired.  Charcoal  can  be  purchased  for  a  cent  a 
stick  and  is  usually  bought  for  20  or  25  cents  a  bo.x.     .\  piece  of  chamois  skin 


406 


Various  Applications 


and  a  few  leather  stumps  are  all  that  are  needed.  Some  even  dispense  with 
the  stumps,  using  the  fingers.  Very  black  marks  can  be  made  with  a  piece 
of  charcoal,  and  they  can  be  readily  dusted  off  with  the  chamois  leather. 

.Ml  gradations  of  light  and  shade  can  be  produced  with  very  few  touches, 
charcoal  being  perhaps  the  quickest  medium  for  reproducing  light  and  shade. 
In  reproducing  a  model,  the  simplest  way  is  the  supreme  end  to  be  attained. 
Thousands  of  directions  can  be  given  to  do  this  or  that,  to  get  this  texture 
or  that,  but  to  reproduce  the  appearance  of  the  model  is  the  main  thing.    The 


Illustrations  434-435 


charcoal   Drawing 
First  stage  of  charcoal  sketch  from  life. 


Only  pupils  who  already  have  some  idea  of 
lorm  and  dexterity  of  hand  should  study  the  nude 
form.  At  the  same  time  anatomy  should  be  studied 
from  casts  of  the  muscles,  from  skeletons,  and,  if 
possible,  from  the  cadaver.  At  some  of  the  best 
art  schools  facilities  are  provided  for  this  work  in 
connection  with  life  drawing,  painting,  etc. 


moment  any  one  states  that  a  particular  surface  or  texture,  tint  or  tone  must 
be  made,  there  is  danger,  because  sometimes  the  thing  can  be  produced  bet- 
ter another  way.  None  but  experts  in  charcoal  can  give  suggestions  as  to 
the  best  way  to  use  it.  To  see  a  good  charcoal  drawing  being  made  is  the 
best  lesson.     To  see  a  number  l)eing  made  in  a  class  is  still  better. 

Pupils  should  study  the  sketches  and  studies  of  the  old  masters;  they 
should  endeavor  to  find  out  how  they  produced  certain  effects.  They  should 
study  the  appearance  and  renderings  of  diverse  drawings;  they  should  not 


Suggestions  for  Art  Students  407 

bliiully  follow  one  style  or  fasliion,  they  should  know  many  of  the  possiiile 
ways  of  rendering  color,  form  values,  light  and  shade,  etc..  with  the  hrusli  or 
pencil.  The  beautiful  charcoal  sketch  by  Rembrandt  on  page  398  should  be 
studied,  also  by  Raphael  on  page  417.  In  any  good  art  museum  hundreds 
of  similar  .sketches  may  be  studied  to  advantage. 

Some  pu])ils  make  a  mistake  by  keeping  at  charcoal  work  too  long.  It 
is  a  happy  medium  to  render  form  in  light  and  shade,  and  beautiful  results 
can  be  produced,  but  I  do  not  believe  that  pupils  should  work  for  years  in 
charcoal,  as  some  do.  It  is  not  a  fact  that  the  more  you  work  in  charcoal, 
the  better  you  will  be  able  to  paint.  Charcoal  is  simply  an  instrument  of 
expression,  and  a  ready  one  in  which  to  become  familiar  with  form  and  light 
and  shade.  When  this  stage  is  arrived  at,  then  color  should  be  used.  The 
longer  this  stage  is  put  off  the  harder  it  will  be  for  the  pupil  to  work  with 
color,  the  palette  with  paints  on  it  being  a  much  more  complex  instrument 
than  the  charcoal.  If  one  becomes  accustomed  to  charcoal  and  works  a 
number  of  years  with  it,  there  is  difificulty  in  learning  to  handle  a  palette 
with  perhaps  eight  or  ten  colors  upon  it. 

I  advise  pupils,  therefore,  to  get  a  thorough  knowledge  of  form,  light 
and  shade  by  means  of  charcoal,  and  when  this  stage  is  reached,  to  imme- 
diately begin  painting  in  color  part  of  the  time.  To  get  light  and  shade, 
form  and  color  with  the  palette  is  one  of  the  highest  forms  of  art,  and  is  one 
that  will  take  much  time.  Remember,  I  advocate  charcoal  work  in  the  ele- 
mentary stages,  and  as  a  ready  means  of  becoming  familiar  with  form,  but 
I  still  a<lvocate  color  and  clay  work  in  connection  with  it. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  a  great  many  ])laces  to  do  too  much  of  the  sketchy 
work,  pen  and  ink  work,  and  similar  modes  of  expression,  instead  of  settling 
down  to  .solid  charcoal  work,  and  work  in  ])aint  and  clay.  I  have  known 
pupils  who  have  sketched  for  two  or  three  years  in  art  schools,  thinking  they 
were  going  to  be  illustrators,  who  would  have  done  nuich  better  if  they  had 
settled  down  to  learning  true  form  anrl  light  and  shade  in  charcoal,  paint  and 
clay.  They  would  have  become  nuich  better  illustrators  in  the  .same  space 
of  time.  Some  newspapers  and  magazines  are  tille<l  with  the  work  of  these 
foolish  people  who  expect  to  make  a  short  cut  to  fame,  but  who  take  a  road 
never  travele<l  by  any  real  artist.  The  best  illustrators  of  any  period  have 
been  artists  who  understood  their  medium  and  gave  the  most  care  and  pains 
to  the  smallest  and  seemingly  most  trilling  details. 


408 


Various  Applications 


Painting  in  Water  Color  from  Casts, — This  illustration  (Xo.  436) 
is  simply  suggestive  for  the  position  to  be  taken  in  doing  simple  work  of  this 
kind.     As  can  he  seen,  the  materials  consist  of  a  simple  box  of  colors,  a  few 

Illustration  436 


Piiiiiling  in  Water  Color  from  Cast 
Showing  position  ol  painter  and  model.    The  drawing  is  only  in  its  first  stage. 


brushes,  paper  to  paint  on  and  the  model.  The  model  is  placed  so  that  a  side 
light  strikes  it  at  a  favorable  angle,  and  it  is  reproduced  on  the  flat  surface 
by  the  pupil.  In  the  illustration  herewith,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
fact  that  the  drawing  is  still  in  an  unfinished  condition,  showing  the  first  few 
washes.     The  cast  is  taken  from  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  works  of 


Suggestions  for  Art  Students 


409 


Michael  Angelo.  "The  Dying  Slave."  It  is  a  difficult  position  for  the  head, 
because  it  is  tipped  on  one  side,  tilted  back  and  turned.  For  this  reason  it 
is  a  difficult  cast  to  draw.  I  believe  Michael  .Vngelo  statetl  somewhere  that 
he  considered  this  to  be  one  of  his  liest  pieces  of  work.  The  original  is  a  full- 
sized  figure  in  marble  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris,  and  is  still  unfinished  in  several 
j)arts.     Till-  is  true  of  a  great  many  of  Michael  .\ngelo's  statues. 

Life  Work, — In  the  following  series  of  pictures  showing  studio  work 
from  life,  I  have  purposely  taken  the  two  students  whose  ]>ictures  show  in 
all  the  departments  of  the  book  from  the  first  steps  as  children  of  five  and  si.K 

Illustration  457 


.skrUhing  from  Life— Model  In  Coituine 
A  kimpir  po»c  is  sclcc-j-d  and  sketches  lire  made  of  the  posilion  of  the  head  or  hand».  portions  of  dni|iTry,  etc. 


years  of  age.  These  students  are  now  (at  the  ages  of  13  to  13)  prepared  for 
the  most  advanced  work,  drawing,  painting  and  modeling  from  life.  1  laving 
worked  in  all  the  elcmentarv  branches  of  art  work,  having  a  certain  amount 


410 


Various  Applications 


of  manual  traininij  and  dexterity  and  knowledge  of  drawing  as  a  mode  of 
thought  expression,  they  are  able  to  begin  intelligently  ui)on  the  highest 
kind  of  work.     The  pictures  have  been  taken  in  one  of  my  studios  used  for 

Illustration  438 


Modeling-  a  Head  from  Life 
The  model  is  seated  upon  a  movable  stand  which  is  turned  at  intervals,  allowing  the  head  to  be  seen  from  all  po  ints. 


private  pupils:  in  the  other  studio  are  facilities  for  all  the  elementary  liranches 
heretofore  described. 

Sketching  in  pencil  from  the  living  model  is  shown  in  Illustration 
437.  A  sim])le  pose  is  given  with  ver\'  simple  costume.  It  is  important  to 
choose  the  most  pleasing  positions.  This  is  one  of  the  things  requiring  most 
judgment  and  art  taste, — i.  e..  to  be  able  to  choose  a  simple  arrangement 
and  at  the  same  time  a  beautiful  one,  with  good  light  and  shade,  good  choice 


Suggestions  for  Art  Students 


411 


of  color,  etc.     Tlie  model  usually  poses  25  minutes,  with  five  minutes'  rest 
each  half  hour. 

In  sketching  from  the  model,  portions  of  the  iigure  are  sometimes 
drawn,  then  again  the  entire  figure:  sometimes  special  arrangements  of 
drapery  are  made.  Sketching  is  ciiietly  to  impress  the  mind  more  vividly 
with  memories  of  the  pose,  movement,  light  and  shade,  color,  etc. 

cModeling  from  the  Head. — In  the  next  illustration  (\o.  438)  two 
pupils  are  shown  making  a  bust  from  life.     The  model  is  placed  upon  a  raov- 

lllustration  439, 


Motlclin^  the  1'  iKurc 
The  inndil  «tiinil  ii  lunitil  ;it  inltnMls,  and  Ihc  »lu.kiil»  .il«ii  tlnni-r  thiir  |H.f iliom,  M>mclliiic>  wurkiiif;  clow  to 
the  mcKlcl,  Rdinclimi-s  nt  a  distance. 


able  stand  and  it  is  turned  at  intervals.  In  this  manner  the  head  can  be  .seen 
from  all  points.  Tiic  pujiils  wi>rk  on  high  stands  and  can  also  revolve  the 
stands  to  get  the  required  view. 


4J2 


Various  Applications 


Modeling  from  the  Figure. — In  this  illustration  (439)  the  model  is 
placed  on  a  movable  stand.  The  ligure  is  built  up,  without  anv  support  in 
the  clav.  and  the  model,  if  satisfactory,  can  l)e  tired  and  made  into  terra  cotta. 


Illustraticn  440 


Modehn  .^  Irom  i-ile 
Another  view  of  same  model.    Properly  finished,  these  clay  models  can  be  fired  and  are  convenient  to  keep. 


Beautiful  small  figures  of  this  character  can  be  made,  some  of  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  various  views  of  the  studio. 

There  are  many  methods  of  modeling  the  figure.  Sometimes  a  piece  of 
lead  pipe  is  used  to  support  the  clay;  sometimes  a  framework  of  strong  wire 
or  wood  is  made.  Metal  or  wood  supports  are  also  used  in  making  busts 
or  models  of  various  forms.  When  these  are  used  the  model  is  always  cast 
in  plaster.  Technical  details  cannot  be  given  here.  A  visit  should  be  made 
to  the  studio  of  some  sculptor,  where  many  ideas  can  be  received. 


Sug:gcitions  for  Art  Students 


413 


Summer  Art  Work. — A  few  of  the  illustrations  lierewith  arc  tai<oii 
from  soiv.e  of  ilie  siudcnis  at  work  in  my  Adiromlacks  summer  school,  the 
teachers'  classes  at  which  also  receive  the  elementary  manual  training  in 
drawing,  designing,  modeling  and  carving.  Xumcrous  artists,  teachers  and 
others  have  heen  fitted  in  these  classes  to  establish  schools  and  institutions 
for  the  new  education,  as  well  as  to  benefit  themselves  in  their  various  lines  of 
art  or  industry.  The  environment  is  beautiful,  and  every  facility  is  provided 
for  the  student  ambitious  for  art.  manual  training  and  nature  study. 


Illustration  441 


Al.-.rK.„umh.T..tpupn,c:.„worVato„e.  all  .muna  ,h.  model.    Thr  bUckWrd  can  1..  u.c.   .xca....„a   v    o 

makc  .he  form,  IMc  sire      To  u-r .h,  character  «-ith  a  few  line.,  .how.  that  the  fom,  I.  memorUed,  and  .h..l      .  ..n 

^  XI    e      n  d' .^^  en      -iLn'-.  .  i  „„u,  ,. nlci.    The  h  .r-ewlU  ..and  ver.-  p...en.ly  for  .o„«  p.r.o. e  p.....i,.n. 


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Suggestions  for  Art  Students  4J5 

Modeling  from  Animal  Forms.  — Illustration  419  represents  a  pupil 
modeling  iruni  a  large  tlog.  The  dog  is  chained  to  a  tree  and  moves 
about  continually.  At  first  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  form,  Init  after  a  little 
study  it  does  not  matter  how  much  the  animal  moves  after  the  pose  or  posi- 
tion is  settled  upon.  If  it  is  a  seated  positon,  as  in  the  picture,  it  will  he  found 
that  the  dog  will  continually  resume  the  same  posture,  and  that  the  form  is 
still  the  same  even  when  moving.  The  shape  of  the  head,  the  bulk  of  the 
body,  the  length  of  the  legs,  the  character  of  the  coarse  hair,  etc.,  can  be  seen 
as  readilx  as  w  hen  in  rci)o.se.  Beginners  are  confused  at  first,  !)ut  if  the  work 
is  persistetl  in  the  form  will  soon  be  grasped  by  the  inin<I,  and  the  memory 
of  form  strengthened. 

All  the  animals  on  a  farm  can  be  modeled  to  advantage.  Cattle  are 
very  good  and  patient  models,  remaining  in  one  jxjsition  for  long  periods 
at  a  time.  Pigs  can  be  tnodeletl  from  the  side  of  the  pen  and  horses  in  the 
stai)le.  Xo  work  is  better  for  students  in  the  beginning  than  this  modeling 
in  clay  or  wax  from  moving  forms.  It  renders  the  mind  able  to  grasp  and 
apprehend  movements  that  are  rarely  shown;  it  enables  the  hand  to  embody 
these  positions  or  motions,  which  are  sometimes  more  artistic  than  any  that 
can  be  produced  from  the  fi.xed  model;  and  .sometimes  a  ra])id  movement  is 
made  or  i)osition  taken  that  is  far  more  beautiful  and  a])propriate  than  any 
befor*  selected.  The  work,  moreover,  gives  artistic  power  when  it  gives 
familiarity  with  all  tiie  possible  movements  of  the  model  instea<l  of  a  few 
A  student  working  this  way  soon  becomes  familiar  with  all  the  possible 
range  of  movements  and  is  able  to  choose  the  most  artistic  for  his  purjiose. 

It  is,  of  course,  more  difficult  to  model  in  diffused  daylight,  or  in  strong 
light  and  shade;  but  to  be  al)le  to  do  so  is  e.xcellent  discipline.  These  forms 
can  all  be  modeled  in  the  barn  (jr  studio,  and  the  class  illustrated  ilo  so  in 
wet  or  stormy  weather.  To  get  certain  elTects  of  light  and  shade,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  side  light,  and  beautiful  work  can  be  produced  in  modeling 
form  by  light  and  shade  alone.  But  to  make  the  real  form  and  proportions 
of  the  models  from  life  is  feasible  and  perhaps  the  l>cst  practice  for  pupils  in 
their  student  stage,  when  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  not  tiie  object  pro- 
duced, is  the  main  thing.  Mo<lels  are  made  con.stantly  by  many  of  our  pupils 
that  possess  both  value  and  beauty,  when  working  out  of  dm  us  .iml  in  this 
manner. 

Frequent  sketching  in  pencil  an<l  charcoal   from   the  animal   form  is 


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Sugfgestions  for  Art  Students 


4J7 


recommended.  Sketches  sliould  l)e  made  of  movements,  of  parts  in  action 
and  in  repose,  of  details  and  of  the  entire  form.  Sometimes  the  sketches 
should  be  made  large,  sometimes  small.  It  is  also  good  practice  to  draw 
the  forms  life-size  on  a  l)lackl)oard  or  other  suitable  surface.  The  black- 
board sketches  illustrated  in  the  pictures  on  pages  413  and  414  are  made 
freehand  without  any  erasing  and  are  memorized  so  that  the  forms  can 
be  drawn  in  any  position.  The  pupil  drawing  these  forms  has  had  i)rac- 
tice  at  this  kind  of  work  for  years,  and  1  have  purposely  used  the  same  ])upil 
drawing  on  the  blackboard  in  each  of  these  engravings.  The  other  members 
of  the  class  draw  in  sketch  books  or  on  pads. 


Illustration  442 


lUiiliJilS  Mud}   r.ir  til.    Miil.Mi...   I><l  I   ii.Hiiiii 
Niiw  in  the  poii»cii!.ion  of  Oxford  Univcrnlly. 

Thi«  i«  apiTfrrt  ".kilrh,  »lii.wiiii>  i.">il  !■  I'"'   |>"-it>"n  jimiI  niMvniuiil   cl  ll.r  lliii,-   imur.-  .in    «u|{- 

KTSli-.l  with  .1  ft»  ti)u.li.».      K  ..  li  t...i.  h  1-  I  ..      Tlnrc   .in-   ii"  t.iil.itiv<-   toiullc.   ..r    |i  it.  Ii,  ..  .  .1.  h   line 

has  mianifitf  .-iiiil    intinlinn.      I  lu    in.isi,  r«  i  npitil  « itii  tin    idin   lu-   wi   ralmllv   .kclrh.a.     llr  .I1.I  nut 

hav<-  tn  think  of  his  l.ni»  or  khildo,  Ihrv  wtri;  inajc  .Mr,"in.itiullly.     Xi>licc  the  palchru  ii(  nhadon  iii.idi-  with  .1  frw 
•wift  lines.     The  idea  of  a  complete  conipoaition  i>  emfxnUnl  with  a  fe»v  mauler  •lroke>. 
2" 


IN   CONCLUSION 


The  author  extends  his  sincere  thanks  to  a  number  of  pupils 
in  his  schools  and  several  friends  whb  have  aided  him,  directly  and 
indirectly.     Special  appreciation  and  recognition  are  due  the  following  : 

Mr  Herbert  Mvrick,  for  valuable  aid,   advice  and    assistance 
throughout  the  entire  work. 

Prof  W.    S.  Long,  in  nature  study. 

Mr  Bern.\rd  Uhle,  in  the  carving. 

Roman  Steiner,  for  various  drawings  and  help  in  chapter  on  construction. 


(418) 


INDEX 


Abstract  work — energy  wasted  by  50,  geomclric  forms 
226,  should  come  natunllv  174 

Abstruse  ideas  should  Iiccomc  r:iniili:ir3t6 

Acanthus  leaf  inoldinf;  nn,  295 

Accuracy — after  facility  Si,  SS,  yS,  122,  lifi,  140;  exercises 
to  compel   124.   ot    perceptive    powers  created  25 

Ambidextrous  work — antheiiiion  used  for  practice  in 
101,  102;  blackboard  designing  in  66,  136;  co- 
ordination in  70,  defense  for  4S,  educates  indi- 
vidual 47,  especial  care  |o  left  hand  79,  80,137; 
left  hand  trained  for  educational  value  4S,  51; 
loop  forms  good  practice  in  S3;  Meissonier's 
opinion  on  51,  old  education  neglected  both 
hands  50,  produces  sympathetic  influence  of  nil 
sets  of  muscles  47 

Angelo,  Michael — eye,  not  hand,  for  instruments  of 
prccision9,  essentialities  first 93,  14$ 

Angelo's  Dying  Slave,  painting  from  4^ 

Angelo's  Sybil  404 

Animal  forms  (see  also  Bird  forms  and  Fish  forms) — 
advice  to  teachers  249,  Raryc  casts  for  schoolroom 
use  iSj,  24g;  Itarye  casts  illu<^trated  213,  246; 
dircctiims  for  modeling  i</iy,  it^,  2\j',  drawing 
pigs  from  life  414,  drawing  the  hnrsc  413,  en- 
larging in  wax  2'j>i,  fre<|uent  sket*'hiiig  recom- 
mended 415,  genenil  form  first  ijy,  illustrations 
of  iSi,  213,  24^>;  individual  taste  ol  pupils  con- 
sulted 247,  m<tdeling  from  415,  modeling  from 
birdb  250,  model  for  each  pupil  24S,  model  the 
best  teacher  249,  sketching  from  cuttle  416,100! 
marks  vs.  smonthness  249,  work  by  grammar 
pupils  251,  working  on,  illustrated  iS'i,  247 

Antefix  of  Parthenon  104 

Anlhemion— ambidextrous  practice  in  102,  antefix  of 
Tarlhenon  104.  ba«.is  of  most  beautiful  art  f«irms 
103,  combineil  wilh  scroll  105,  107 ;  directions  for 
carding  2S5,  directions  for  modeling  241,  funda- 
mental Greek  form  102,  graded  curves  in  lOJ, 
Ideal  form,  not  imitation  104,  illustration  of 
car\ed  form  »S7,  love  of  Gri'eks  for  n^,  m'ldelcd 
form  illuHtrated  241,  tangential  curvature  in  104, 
variou*  arrangement*  ftf  242 

Antique  forms— plaster  inodeU  from  105,  vs.  natural 
forms  for  kchoulroom  mS,  working  on  illustrated 

Antonius  on  the  divine  power  in  nature  345 

Apple,  directions  for  modeling  J09,  21  > 

Architectural  form*  for  drawing— five  style*  rcpre* 
ftented  iSj,  Illustration*  of  1S3,  iS^;  memory 
drawing  of  make*  good  practice  103,  practical 
application  tSf,  style*  learned  by  drawing  them 


Architecture- aim  to  understand  styles  323,  archi- 
tectural models  indispensable  323,  original  plans 
and  original  ideas  323,  typical  forms  and  princi- 
pits  first  ^ii,  unnccessar)'  detail  should  be 
avoided  323 

Aristotle -bodily  health  and  moral  character  first  i, 
hand  instrument  of  instruments  ij,  true  education 
exalts  and  expands  mind  1.  utility  atone  of  little 
value  1 

Armour  institute's  methods  54 

Art — (sec  also  Dniwing,  Manual-training  dniwing  and 
Art  students,  suggestions  to),  art  and  mechanical 
sides  taught  both  t«»gcther  325,  art  in  handicraft 
very  rare  3^.  artist's  views  of  instruction  desired 
67,  art  methods  make  knowledge  automatic  59, 
atmospht-reof  in  school  room  2t»'N,  bad  use  of  art 
work  in  schools  52,  Cftmpels  observation, rejec- 
tion, actiiui  45,  340;  divorced  from  commercial 
systems  44,  drill  and  designing  necessary  ad- 
juncts 46,  emotions  aroused  by  360,  forms  alone 
Ciinnot  elevate  mind  3S5,  gfK>d  art  requites  good 
ideas  57,  itnitative  work  at  schools  5S,  lack  of 
training  in  cointnon  schools  36,  need  of  in  funda- 
mental work  44,  Philadelphia  scb<H>l  of  industrial 
ly,  27,  33,  gJ,  lui,  22S,  2_V>,  i'tj,  271;  preliminary 
sttp  to  manual  training  44,  requiri-<l  in  nil  pur- 
suits 46.  should  precede  mechanical  work  317, 
symboli«in  in  explained  17S,  iS;);  true  meaning 
and  use  of  41,  vital  part  in  many  pursuits  45, 
work  under  name  of  41,  wrong  methods  often 
engender  dislike  tt»r  3V1 

Art  methods -compel  reflection  and  action  45,  co- 
ordinate  memories  and  ideas  339,  correlation  with 
school  witrk  330.  3^7;  in.ike  knowledge  auto, 
nritic  54),  unify  and  solidify  ideas  339,  various  ap- 
pticatiouH  of  303 

Art,  I'hilailvlphia  school  of  industrial  —  clay  modeling 
class  illustrated  27,  co>tt  of  m.inual  training 
plant  33,  drawing  and  painting  class  illustrated  92, 
modeling  riMim  illustrated  igj,  samples  of  gram- 
mar grade  work  jjS,  wax  designs  by  pupiU  256, 
woftd  carving  class  illustrated  it^  J'f2;  wood 
carving   CKamplv«  270 

Art  ittudent*,  suggestion*  for— car\'ing  in  the  round 
illustrated  3i/>,  characteristic  of  best  illustrator* 
4ri7,  charcoal  drawing  405,  4117;  charcoal  *kelch 
illustratetl  ^ctt,  don't  fidtowtme  style  407,  drawing 
from  the  nude  illu*traled  ^rt\  dniwing  the  horar 
illustrated  413,  fitting  for  minor  art*  405,  good 
artisan*  v«.  good  arliat*  402,  laitdwrape  painting 
and  drawing  in  the  Adirondnck*  403.  life  wttrk 
^tst^  methodsof  art  »chool*  criticised  fimi,  Michael 


(410) 


420 


Index 


Angclo  evt-n  designed  ink  bottles  402,  modeling  a 
vase  illustnited  399,  modeling  from  animal  forms 
415,  modeling  fiom  life  itlustrattd  410,  411,  4U; 
modeling  from  the  figure  412,  normal  class  carv- 
intr  iDustrated  397,  painting  in  water  color  from 
castb  40S,  painting  Angelo's  Dying  Slave  illus- 
trated  40S,  preparing  for  fine  art  work  402, 
Raphael's  study  for  the  Madonna  del  Cardellino 
417,  Rembrandt's  elephant  illustrated  and  ex- 
plained 39S,  schools'  greatest  fault  399,  sketrhing 
from  life  illustrated  409,  study  sketches  of  old 
mas'ers  406,  summer  art  work  413,  superficial 
v:-.  real  at  t  training  399,  teachers  needn't  be  gen- 
iuses   in  art  402,  when  it  is  rightto  specialize 403 

Artists— (see  also  Art  students,  suggestions  for) 
carving  part  of  education  of  old  masters  300,  give 
care  and  pains  to  seemingly  trifling  details  407, 
good  artists  sketch  constantly  143,  great  artists 
simplify  things  149,  greatest  could  model  1S7, 
judgment  of  should  be  sought  6S 

Arts,  fine —  see  Art  students,  suggestions  for 

Arts,  fitting  for  the  minor  405 

Backward  pupils— can  best  learn  by  "  doing  "  3S9, 
humanitarian  object  3S9,  nascent  period  ot  390, 
olten  especially  apt  in  art  methods  3S9 

Balliet,  Dr— no  true  distinction  between  hand  and  brain 
work  iS 

Banana,  directions  for  modeling  214 

Barye  casts— children's  love  for  249,  illustrations  of 
213,  24'3;  use  of  preferred  in  schoolroom  1S2,  249 

Basket,  directions  for  modeling  306 

Beauty-as  rendered  by  "pagans**  153,  a  universal 
hunger  254,  common  heritage  of  254,  appreciation 
of  how  best  taught  60,  contented  mind  through 
knowiedgeof  6,  drawing  creates  knowledge  ot  19 
how  acted  39,  goodness  and  truth  examples  of  254, 
human  responsiveness  to  254,  joy  of  perceiving 
3,  340;  knowledge  of  makes  contented  mind  even 
in  drudgery  6,  310;  love  for  in  nature  cultivated 
60,  2dS;  moral  influence  of  6,  organic  impressions 
of  produced  6,  perception  of  developed  7,  recog- 
nized in  common  things  62,  science  of  3,  sense  of 
how  educated  254,  standard  of  is  absolute  7 

Bell,  Sir  Charles — greatest  source  of  happiness  65, 
hand  governed  by  sensibility  51,  hand  the  instru- 
ment for  jierfectingthe  senses  261 

Bench  work— illustration  of  16,  should  correlate  with 
other  studies  319 

Bird  forms — color  learned  from  163,  conventionalized 
172,  decorative  173,  directions  for  modeling  207, 
350;  252;  drawing  and  painting  from  life  illustra- 
ted 49,  drawing  illustrated  351,  essential  features 
should  be  firs-t  grasped  172,  memory  drawings 
illustrated  161,  modeling  from  life  illustrated  207, 
250;  models  of  for  drawing,  painting,  modeling 
179,  object  lesson  in  162,  primarv  work  illustrated 
160,  simple  form  should  become  automatic  159, 
suggestions  on  drawing  159 

Bird's  nest,  directions  for  modeling  205 

Blackboard— design  and  drill  work  illustrated  121,  13S; 
designing  on  (suggestions)  135,  13S;  exercises 
for6S,  69,  7-:^,  71,  72,  9S,  134,  136,  13S;  nightschool 
work  on,    illustrated  37;  shell  exercises  on  15S, 


value  of  blackboard  work  10,  work  on  made 
much  of  in  woodwork  construction  324 

Bodily  life  comprehended  in  mental  action  340 

Book  learning — book-bred  people  indisposed  to  action 
20,  memory  overtaxed  16,  vitality  consumed  by 
17,  words  studied  at  expense  of  ideas  21 

Borders — acanthus  leaf  295,  beaded  surface  292,  carved 
work  illustrated  292,  295  ;  exercises  in  drawing  123 
for  schoolroom  decoration  3S5,  models  in  plaster 
illustrated  227,  plain  curved  293,  suggestions  on 
carving  291,  295;  suggestions  on  drawing  122,123; 
tongue  and  dart  292,  293 

Botanical  drawing  165,  167;  daisy  lesson  illustrated 
165,  dandelion  lesson  167,  drawing  from  fruit  il- 
lustrated 166,  horse-chestnut  leaf  embodies  many 
laws  165,  leaf  lesson  illustrated  167,  technical 
names  easily  learned  166,  useful  for  school  work 
164,  33S 

Botany,  drawing  as  aid  to  165,  167^  33S 

Brain  as  an  organized  register  of  experiences  224 

Brush  work  (see  Color  and  brush  work) 

Bud  forms  111 

Building  constructions  illustrated  309,  111,  313 

Calipers — best  kind  for  curved  surfaces  292,  marking 
out  mouldings  with  293,  294,  295;  use  in  rosettes 
3S6 

Capacity  for  drawing  inherent  64 

Carpenter  work,  previous  training  required  for  305 

Carrot,  directions  for  modeling  21S 

Carving- see  Wood  carving 

Carving  on  curved  surfaces— arms  for  settee  and  chair 
301,  borders  292,  295;  dolphin  easy  tu  cut  301,  flat 
surface  practice  first2g!,suggestionson "spoiled" 
work  292,  work  in  illustrated  291,  302 

Casts  (see  also  Plaster  models)  — Barye  182,213,246; 
fish  forms  make  good  254,  leaf  tornis  215,  of  wax 
models  how  made  259,  teacher  should   make  1S2 

Chair  forms — drawings  irom  memory  illustrated  176, 
177;  examples  of  carved  work  290,  297;  sugges- 
tions on  drawing  177 

Character  and  capacity  improved  by  doing  341 

Charcoal  drawing— don'r  stay  too  long  at  407,  equip- 
ment and  cost 405,  firs;  ot  art  processes  405,  get 
form,  light  and  shade  through  407,  light  and 
shade  gradations  with  few  touches  406,  Raphael's 
Madonna  del  Cardellino  417,  Rembrandt's  ele- 
phant 39S,  sketching  the  human  figure  406,  study 
sketches  of  old  masters  406,  too  much  sketchy 
work  407 

Chart-making  for  school  use  354,  357 

Child  study,  danger  of  wrong  methods  40 

Chisel— acute  vs  flat  273,  best  practice  at  first  with  272, 
beveling  outer  edge  274,  cui^ed  form  on  round 
surlace  294,  295 ;  cutting  around  curve  273,  274; 
feeling  iorm  with  273,  few  kinds  needed  263,  flat 
form  on  curved  surface  292,  mallet  used  with  271, 
position  lor  holding  271,  273;  touch  of  guided  by 
intelligence  2S0 

Circle,  the— combinations  of  122,  directions  for  draw- 
ing 77,  7S;  directions  for  modeling  196,  first  exer- 
cise 77,  meaning  of  in  symbolism  17S,  practice 
for  freehand  movements  41,  six -movement  exer- 
cises 79 


Inde^ 


42  ( 


Clay  (see  :ilso  Modeling;  and  clay  modclini;)  —box  for 
191,  care  of  t9J,  ca\  itivs  in  how  avoided  34S,  cost 
of  iSS,  manipulation  of  193,  J51  ;  ithrinkage  ol 
in  modeling  250,  su||C|i^'stionson  usin^;  190 

Clay  modeling- aid  to  drawing  S6,  154;  animal  forms 
1S6,  199 — J04,  247 — 255;  basket  Kt*,  bird  forms 
ao7,  bird's  nest  J05,  circular  form,  illu>trated  19^, 
elementar\"  courses  in  193— ioS;  eletnentarj-  forms, 
directions  for  making  194—^07;  elementary  forms 
illustrated  1S9,  191,  19^,  193,  194,  195,  196,  197,  iqS, 
aoo,  20i,  2oj,  204,  joA,  J31  ;  tirst  exercises,  illustra- 
ted i9S,lish  form  202,  25i;for  grammar  grades  2^9 
^245;  frog  20J, fruit  and  vegetable  forms  J09 — iio; 
geometric  forn»s  221 — J27;  leaf  fonns  112,  1 15,  195; 
lizard  303,  modeled  lorms  illustrated  iS^'i,  1S9,  19S, 
311;  mouse  J04,  natural  forms  should  be  more 
used  2^2,  naiiiral  objects  J03,  reason  for  elemen* 
liiry  forms  jtj,  sh(»e  205,  small  forms  1S9,  snake 
J02,  spiral  194,  suii^gestions  on  natural  forms  2^2^ 
tile  206,  tree  stump  205,  turtle  20J,  vessel  forms 
304,  work  in  illustrated  27,  209 

Color — good  example  of  in  bird  1(14,  light  and  shade 
after  lorm  177,  not  besl  taught  by  tinted  paper  4.'( 

Color  and  brush  work — freehand  brush  work  133,  good 
brush  handling  important  132,  materials  for  132, 
painting  from  nature  141,  warning  to  teachers  141 

Common  things — maile  beautiful  02,  perfect  lessons 
from  39,  pleading  to  be  understood  02 

Cone,  directions  for  modeling  226 

Construction  m  \vot>dwork,  see  Woodwork  construe 
tton 

Construction    in  woodwork   and    mechanical  drawing 

305— 3'4 
Constructive  work,  see  Woodwork  construction 
Co-ordination,    physical— ambidextrous    work   creates 
48,    drawing,    drsi;j;ning,    carving    makes    5,   of 
motor  centers  103,  of  hand,  eve,  brain  30,  train- 
ing ot   forn»s  sense  connections  39 
Correlation  of  drawing  with  other  schiKjl  work  52— 57, 

S39-^S7 

Craftsmanship  now  vs.  the  past  yr; 

Crocket,  the  —  combined  with  scroll  as  model  339, 
directions  tor  modeling  239,  single  and  double 
curved  as  drawing  exercise**  </4— ^^5 

Cube,  directions  for  modelmg  222 

Cupid's  head  carved  299,  300 

Curiosity,  value  of  in  children  3^ 

Curvature,  timgenlial—anthemioM  example  of  104,  horse- 
chestnut  leaf  165,  how  become  organic 99,  ncccs* 
sity  ol  in  designing99,  shells  show  15S 

Curved  surface,  see  Carving  on  curved  surfaces 

Cylinder,  directions  for  modeling  224 

Daisy  drawing  lesson  105 

Dandeliondrawing  lesson  i'»7 

Decorative  work  (see  alito  Designings — anthemion  In 
103,  bird  fonns  for  172,  173;  defense  for  4^,  fish 
forms  in  152—153 

Design,  car\  ing  elementary  units  of— anthemion,  how 
car\'ed  2S5,  conventionalixed  shell  forms  2-^9, 
designing  the  form  tncanc  rih—xbH;  fluted  forms, 
how  car\cd  iSW,  rosettes,  how  car*'c«i  jVt,  scroll, 
how  carved  2"^^,  i'^i'.  simple  leaf,  how  ca^^'ed 
2S4,  spiral  with  cnickets,  how    carved   2S5,   three 


stages  in  work  2S3,  2'^;  u..rk  by  public  fchool 
cliiUlren  131 

IK'signer,  nature  the  best  155 

Designing  (drawing)— alter  work  as  little  as  i>ossibIe 
137,  blackboard  135,  136;  both  hands  used  136, 
center  of  pattern  tirst  137,  color  and  brush  work 
132,  combinations  of  units  97,  elementary  units 
S7— 100;  elements  of  95,  (ish  forms  in  152,  har- 
mony  in  arrangement  100,  object  of  teacher  137, 
originality  of  arrangement  95,  o-i  ;inal  pattern 
10,  51  ;  practical  application  of  9^,  13S;  rosette  in 
9'i,  9S;  ruler,  use  of  132,  secret  of  strength  tn 
100,  see  form  as  whole  20,  sketching  coo-pared 
with  57,  spiral  used  in  93 

Designing  on  wood  (see  also  Wood  car\-ing)— avoid 
artificial  means  2^>  desi  ;n  shouid  be  of  use  and 
value  2^>,  I'ree  cur\  es  needed  in  272,  hard  wood 
preferred  2''n,  outline  made  permanent  2'<^,  scor- 
ing the  background  23S,  simple  freehand  pattern 
first  266 

Development,  natural — foundatirn  of  5.  importance  of 
>A  '4.  IS 

Diagonals,  exercises  on  79 

Disposition  or  bent,  natural  11,  15;  common  lack  ol 
development  in  12,  inspiration  through  discovery 
of  15,  manual  training  methods  find  out  12 

Divine  energy — bend  to,  in  nature  63,  254;  build  on,  in 
children  145,  education  should  develop  164,  llnw 
with,  not  thwart  254,  in  each  one  145,  in  natural 
things  345,  magnetic,  energising  power  of  254 

Divinity  of  thint;s,  how  learned  7 

Dolphin — conventional  designs  of  1(19,  170;  lish  forms 
first  170,  suggestions  for  using  170,  use  in  carv- 
ing 301,  wax  design  359 

Dniwing  (see  a!so  Manual-tralnmg  drawing.  Design- 
ing and  Art  students) — abstract  forms  disap- 
proved 174,  absurdities  of  commercial  systems 
44,  anthemion  102—107;  application  the  aim  in 
designing  9  >,  artificial  aids  opposed  SS.  attention 
to  position,  movement,  etc.  7't,  automatic  move- 
ments desired  S4,  beauty  tau'^ht  by  ii;,  botanical 
165—167;  bud  forms  111,  capacity  for  inherent  r^, 
circle  77 — 7v;  channel  for  vivid  and  permanent 
impression  340,  children  sutler  liy  wrtmg  methods 
36,  combinations  of  units  and  styles  97,  101  — i3u; 
compared  with  writing  7),  i4'>;  conventional 
forms  first  91,  correlation  with  other  mc!iik>1  work 
52—57.  Ai'i  -.157;  creative  capacity  develo|K-d  93, 
crudity  corrected  by  habit  7^1,  double  loop  !v» — ^14; 
drill  and  design  forms  121  — 131 ;  drill  for  magni- 
tude* 127,  drill  work  imptirlant  125,  elementary 
units  S7— too;  elements  of  design95;  energy  dc. 
stroycd  by  definitions  145,  enlarging  11,  162,  1^14; 
facility  then  accuracy  9S,  facts  learned  by  illus- 
trating their  meaning  33g-  341 ;  liroi  exircises  72, 
first  exjwriinent*  w,  f<Mili*.h  si  iteim-nt*  43,  free- 
hand for  young  children  73,  fruit  i"7.  fund.iinentai 
methods  9,  futility  of  present  inethtHU  5't,  general 
lack  of  training  35,  3'*;  kindercarten  fault  91, 
language  of  truth  5  s  language  study  eorrelalcil 
with  342,  leading  lines  9S,  leaf  iorms  ic.S  — no;  lite 
iJiO— 154*  lining  In  opposed  7^^  77;  love  of  nature 
taught  by  53,  makes  mind   33,    materials  73,   74; 


422 


Index 


Meissonier  on  teaching  50,  memory  139 — 16S; 
mental  iniiige  vs.  pencil  lines  127,12$;  methods 
criticised  43,  Michael  Angelo's  maxim  9,  misuse 
of  type  forms  43,  mode  of  thoug'ht  expression  19, 
40,  45,  56,  64,  117,  146,339;  Moorish  units  iiS — 120; 
moving  models,  drawing  from  161,  natural 
method  SS,  natural  vs.  type  forms  43,  nature  155 — 
16S;  nature  study  drawing  6,  345;  not  mere  ac- 
complishment 52,  object  173,  176;  originality  in 
arranging  forms  95,  outlay  required  small  44,  per- 
ception trained  by  39,  performance  the  test  of 
teachers  45,  perspective  naturally  acquired  174, 
preliminary  manual-training  drawing  67 — 74; 
primary  work  160,  province  of,  properly  taught 
20,  32;  reason  for  consecutive  movements  79,  re- 
inforces knowledge  70,  sizes  of  units  suggested 
gi,  speaking  through  finger  tips  146,  spiral  S4 — S5, 
93;  steps  toward  better  methods  71,  solids  127—129; 
straight  lines  76,  79 — So;  suited  to  the  dull  and 
backward  52,  supplemented  by  modeling  and 
carving  S6,  supplement  to  nature  study  70,  sys- 
tems in  common  use  36,  44;  teachers  should  be 
tested  45,  technical  and  hard  words  learned  by 
drawing  342 — 344;  technical  terms  and  instruc- 
tions opposed  S9,  tangential  curvature 99,  teachers 
and  supervisors  should  draw  42,  teaches  begin- 
ning of  wisdom  53,  union  of  thought  and  action 
by  40,  universal  tongue  33,  146;  value  as  manual 
training  71,  vital  study  52,  weakness  of  old 
methods  41,  wrong  and  right  way  nf  tiaching 
52 — 53 ;  zoology  aided  by  343 

Drawing  as  mode  of  expression  19,  40,  45,  56,  64,  117, 
146,  153 

Drawing  materials — manila  paper  for  practice  work 
73,  ordinary  lead  pencils  74,  paper  73,  pencils  74, 
reason  ftir  no  rubber  74 

Drexel  institute  methods  5^ 

Drill  forms  (see  also  Forms  and  Clay  modeling) — anthe- 
mion  101—107;  automatic  facility  in  70,  76;  bird 
forms  159—163,  172—173,  179;  circle  77— 79,  122; 
combinations  of  units  and  styles  97,  loi — 120; 
double  loop  So— S4;  drill  forms  and  designs  121  — 
13S;  elementary  75 — 100;  ellipse  i25,  fish  forms 
143 — 153;  leading  lines  98,  leaf  forms  loS,  loop 
form  S2,  S3,  go,  101 ;  meanings  enhance  enjoy. 
ment  123,  set  forms  opposed  72,  spiral  80,84—85, 
93;  straight  lines  79 — 80;  strap  work  124,  vessel 
forms  127 — 129 

Drill  work,  importance  of  125 

Duty— as  adesire,  not  sacrifice  254,  beauty  of  should  lie 
more  dwelt  on  254 

Education  (see  also  Education  in  art  and  manual 
training) — abstract  work  consumes  energy  50 
all  channels  should  be  used  22,  book-bred  people 
indisposed  to  action  20,  common  idea  of  157,  com- 
mon things  made  beautiful  62,  common  nature- 
study  method  criticised  5S,  correlate  drawing  with 
other  school  work  52,  drawing  and  manual  train- 
i"gr '"  32,  Emerson  on  4,  emotions  and  aspirations 
must  be  appealed  to  360,  energy  from  right 
methods6i,  eye  troubles,  cause  of  10,  21 ;  facts  not 
words  iS,  familiarity  not  knowledge  59,  finding 
natural  "bent"  one  aim  of  12,  first  step  to  higher 
thought  studies  54,  health  damaged  by  improper 


methods  62,  knowledge  means  ability  to  use  iS, 
340;  learning  facts  by  illustrating  their  meaning 
339»  34' ;  ^oss  of  energy  through  unessential 
things  40,  Maudsley  on  340,  memory  overtaxed  by 
present  modes  16,  mental  and  bodily  vigor  by 
unionof  study  and  "  doing"  341,  modeling  human 
mind  227,  motor  centers  trained  59,  object  of,  real 
4,  old  methods  faulty  21,  340;  one  problem  of  the 
new  341,  perfect  lessons  from  common  things  39, 
progress  requires  persistence  142,  schoolroom 
decoration 3S5 — 3S7;  "special  experts"  opposed 
38,  steps  to  character  building  362,  systematic 
training  of  senses  through  38,  teacher's  mission 
15,  teachei's  personality  recognized  34,  traditional 
errors  overcome  32,  true  education  expands 
mind  i,true  teacher  draws  out  energy  145,  150, 
164;  union  of  study  and  "dning"  341,  unites 
thought  and  action  22,  value  of  direcl  knowledge 
of  environment  54,  value  of  few  things  well 
learned  34S,  visual  metnory  important  20,  vitality 
consumed  by  book  learning  17,  words  too  often 
studied  at  expense  of  ideas  21 
Education  in  art  and  manual  training  (see  also  Edu- 
cation, and  Art  students,  suggestions  for) —  am- 
bidextrous work  47—51 ;  art  and  manual  training 
in  special  schools  359—383;  beauty,  perception 
of  developed  7,  combinations  of  units  and  styles 
101 — 120;  contact  with  things  forms  ideas  16 — 23; 
conventional  and  symbolic  forms  169— 184; cor- 
relation of  drawing  with  other  studies  339 — 358; 
development  of  natural  organism  4,  drawing 
correlated  with  other  studies  52 — 57,  339^357; 
drill  forms  and  designs  121 — 138;  elementary  drill 
forms  75 — S6;  elementary  units  87 — 100;  elemen- 
tary work  outlined  4 — 5  ;  ideas  first  necessary  17, 
impressions  assimilated  through  all  senses  22, 
inspiration  of  natural  method  17,  intelligence 
from  hand  skill  39,  life  and  memory  drawing 
139 — 154;  manual  dexterity,  value  of  233,  me- 
chanical drawing  319— 323  ;  mechanical  methods 
useless  9,  mediums  for  shaping  ideas  5,  modeling 
animal  forms  247 — 255;  modeling  for  grammar 
grades  229 — 245;  modeling  geometric  forms  221 — 
227;  modeling,  preliminary  1S5— 220;  modeling 
in  w^ax  257—260;  natural  c;ipacity  discovered 
S,  12;  nature  and  memory  drawing  155 — 168; 
natuie  studies  58 — 64;  object  of  new  method  24, 
organic  memories  developed  5,  physical  co-ordi- 
nations 5,  prelimi  i:iry  manual-training  drawing 
67 — 74;  real  drawing  needed  35—46,  rectifying 
exercises  4,  repetition  and  force  of  habit  iS,  ro- 
tation of  work  5,  school  equipment  33,  school- 
room decoration  3S5— 3S7;  teachers  not  plants 
needed  34,  teachers  should  be  examined  45,  teach- 
ersvs.  imitators  and  copyists  45,  325;  tool-using 
alone  makes  machines  4,  tool  work  not  the  end 
but  the  means  317,  true  and  false  manual  train- 
ing 24— 34;  union  of  head,  hand,  heart  iS,  utili- 
tarian idea  overdone  26,  41 ;  visual  memory  in  20, 
wood  carving  261 — 302;  woodwork  construction 
305—337 
Elementary  carving,  instructions  for— acute  and  flat 
chisels,  use  of  273,  beveling  off  outer  edge  274, 
cutting    form     around    edge    273,    cutting   oak 


Index 


423 


Splendid  discipline  271,  encourage  thr  pupil  275, 
gradually  increase  grooves  aji,  hnw  to  ciir\c  271, 
pushing  chisel  throui;h  wood  2^2,  raised  surface 
how  car^'ed  273,  swing  chi>i'l  with  both  hands  273 

Elementary  courses  in  clay  modeling  lyj— loS 

Elementary  fonns, directions  for  modeling  194 — 207 

Ellipse -compels  balance  ij6,  exercises  for  automatic 
use  iJ'i,  use  in  design  ij6,  vessel  forms  126—129 

Emerson— common  things  pleading  ti>  be  understood 
62,  good  thoughts  valueless  unless  executed  1S5, 
real  object  of  education  4,  thought  ripened  by 
action  1S5,  what  education  is  and  should  be  4 

Emotion— art  arouses  ^(io,  touch  children's  164,  value 
of,  through  generous  acts  254 

Energy— abstract  work  consumes  50,  63;  bend  to  divine 
in  nature  63,  build  on  divine  in  children  145,  con- 
screed  by  nature  knowledge  17,  dissipated  by 
mere  book  learning  17,  divine  in  each  one  145,  254; 
how  lost  during  maturity ,V'2,  in  children  must 
have  some  outlet  360,  loss  of  lhr<)ugh  unessential 
things  40,  necessity  of  for  success  14,  pleasing 
fonns  help  create  247,  right  education  creates 
61,  300;  saved  bv  this  inelhitd  10 

Essentialities  first  93,  143.  14-S,  175,201 

Esthetic  training  (see  also  Hc-auly)— essential  to  com- 
plete culture  39,  influence  of  beauty  6,  necessary 
in  education  3,  practical  use  of  3,  59 

Exjwrience  the  mother  of  ide;is  1 1 

Expression — drawing  a  mode  of  19,  40,45.56,64,  117, 
146;  modeling  a  mode  of  iSS,  255 

Eve  troubles,  one  cause  of  10,  21 

Facility— automatic  use  of  7''>,  before  accuracy  Si.SS, 
9^,  122,  lit^,  140 

Familiarity  m»t  knowledge  59 

Farari,  sample  o(  car\-ing  by  29S 

Feebleminded  and  insane,  best  education  for  390 

Fine — art  work,  preparing  for  402 

Fine  arts,  the— see  Ait  students,  suggestions  for 

Finger  tips,  speaking  thiough  146 

Fish  fonns  (sec  also  Drawing)— angel  fish  i44,caran- 
goid  144,  color  examples  in  144,  combined  with 
other  forms  152,  directions  for  modeling  3*iit 
254;  drawing  creates  knowledge  ol  151,  I5j;gen- 
crali/:ing  147,  general  remarks  on  153,  idealizing 
146,  in  design  152,  mackerel  143,  memory  draw- 
ing of  14S,  151 ;  modeled  in  clay  1S5,  sea  bass  150, 
shccpshcad  145,  subjects  for  study  143.  typical 
145,  use  of  for  plaster  casts  254 

Fluted  forms,  how  carve  2SS 

Fonn— feeling  form  in  wockI  273,  first  considered  177, 
iMlpres^ion  of  Inrst  secured  Vi,  nrj ;  learned 
through  modeling  177,  i'>7;  wood  carving  leaches 
real  form  »h^,  300 

Forms  (see  also  Drill  forms  and  Clay  modeling) —ani- 
mal forms  in  modeling  199—104,  247—255;  archi- 
tectural 1S2— 1S4;  botanical  164—167;  ctiair  i7<t. 
177;  conventional  and  symbolic  161/— 1S4;  con- 
ventionalized bird  forms  172,  decorative  and 
conventional  45.  dolphin  169-170;  forms  suitable 
for  car\  ing  >/»— 300;  fruit  and  vegetable  forms 
In  modeling  209—110,  gC"»metrii.-  in  wn«>d  con- 
•truction  326,  327 ;  geomi-lrir  lo  1  much  U">t.'d  in 
drawiiiL*  0.  itlealixed   animal    171,  tuturBl  before 


type  43,  natural  should  be  more  used  in  school- 
ro4>ni  2^1,  natural  v^.  idealized  153,  vessel  sha|>cs 
129 

Forms  suitable  for  elemenlark'  carving — chairs  297,  for 
small  w«>rk  19S,  frames  296 

Frazier,  Mr.  W,  \V.— authority  on  vacation  and  night 
schi>oIs  379 

Frog,  directions  for  modeling  202 

Fruit  forms,  miKieUng  fnun— apple  2oi>— J12;  banana 
314,  fruit  tile  214,  hints  to  teachers  212,  modeling 
from  nature  217,  pear  212,  texture  easily  imitated 
212,  use  of  t'N)l  210,  212 

Fruit,  drawing  from  167 

Fruit  tile,  directions  for  modeling  214 — 217 

Furniture  and  other  advanced  work  carving  on— 
acanthus  leaf  molding  294,  295;  arms  for  chairs 
and  settees  3(x>,  301 ;  N-aded  surface  border  192, 
calipers  sometimes  necessan.*  2S6,  192,  295;  chair 
back  piece  jg6,  chair  examples  197,  curved  sur- 
face, how  caree  on  291,  forms  suitable  for  carving 
396 — 300;  illustnitifins  291—301;  picture  frames 
396,  plain  curbed  molding  293.  2Qt;  shell  and  leaf 
lorms  tor  2*^5,  tongue  and  dart  molding  292,  work 
in  illu.ilrated  291 

Galpin,  >>ir  Thomas — development  of  human  faculty  20, 
visualization  jo 

Geometric  forms,  modeling  from— cone  225,  cube  222^ 
cylinder  224,  general  remarks 226,  si/.e  best  lo  use 
221,  sphere  222,  square  prism  225,  too  much  U'^ed 

56,  221,  224 

Goodness  and  tnilh  examples  of  beauty  254 

Gouge— cutting  channel  around  design  271,  for  remov- 
ing backgntund  272,  position  of  in  earning  279, 
select  according  lo  curve  273,  scooping  out 
inside  cur\'e  273 

Greek  art,  learning  to  appreciate  2tS 

GrifTuis — (reehaiid  designs  13**,  firiginal  design  255, 
suggestions  on  drawing:  172.  \\irii;ed  form  in 
car\ed  furniture  301 

Habits  vs.  principles  214 

llailmann,  Dr.  \V.  N'.— acknmvledgment  to  10,  clothe 
utility  with  beauty  33.  Dr.  llaitmann*»  .iddress 
at  the  graduating  ckcrciKcs  of  the  Public  School 
of  Industrial  Art,  and  his  comment  u|>on  tni* 
b<Hik,  are  in  the  pTvfator>'  pages. 

Hall,  Stitnley- nature  the  ttource  of  education  and 
reti)i;ioti  ii 

ll.illeck,  l*rof.  Iteutten— acts  vs.  ideas  in,  motor  action 
ne«-dft  cultivation  Jo,  motor  paralysis  of  bi>ol% 
absorlwrs  jo 

Hand,  the— Arintntlc  on  J2,  capacity  for  skill  in  ti,  in- 
strument for  perfecting  other  senses  201,  in»lrii- 
ment  of  iii»(rument»  22,  intelligence  from  hanii 
skill  3g,  lelthand  iraining  needed  4S— 51,791^^; 
Mcifcsonier  on  lelthand  work  51.  ol>edient  to  will 
jj,  70,  (n,  27**;  power  «»i  to  fiml  texture  in  wiwhI 
271,  275;  right  and  left-hand  work  47—51;  »en- 
ftibilitv  go\erns  the  51,  .Mr  Chark*  Hell  on  51, 
3f>i ;  »killed  hand  v*.  fluent  tongue  i\t  various 
mediums  foro 

Happiiie«ft  in  spite  of  drudg\-rv  6.  310 

Harris  Dr.  W.  T.— art  influence  360 


424 


Index 


Health  -first  consideration  i,  improper  educational 
methods  injure  62 

Hobby,  value  of  this  system  as  1^ 

Horse-chestnut  leat  embodies  many  laws  165 

Human  form  studies — charcoal  drawings  406,  methods 
of  modeling'  412,  modeling  and  drawing  from 
life  401,  modeling  head  from  life  410,  modeling  the 
figure  411,  412;  Raphael's  Madonna  del  Car- 
detlino  417,  sketching  model  in  costume  409 

Ideas — ability  to  revive  57,  as  images  of  sensory  im- 
pressions 207,  basis  of  originality  30,  develop- 
ment of  16,  iS;  disintegration  of  how  prevented 
392,  getting  and  giving  first  hand  32,  good  art 
requires  57,  growth  of  57,  sense  impressions 
create  16,  19;  separate  mental  exi  tence  57,  sym- 
bols of  things  cannot  create  17,  thought  fabric 
built  by  expressing  17,  union  of  head,  hand, 
heart  necessary  iS,  words  made  valuable  by  16 

Imitation — tendency  ot  art  schools  toward  149 

Impressions — more  time  for  dwelling  on  needed  57, 
permanent   and  vivid    through   art  channels  340 

Individualitv — recognized  in  pupils  ^22,  329;  recog- 
nized in  teacher  34 

Insane  and  feeble-minded  institutions — art  and  indus- 
trial training  adapted  for  390,  disposition  should 
be  studied  and  interest  awakened  391,  Dr.  Kirk- 
bride's  experience  390,  importance  of  pleasing 
occupation  390,  not  all  in  institutions  392,  pottery 
forms  modeled  by  the  insane  391,  suggestions 
391,  things  of  beauty  and  value  produced  by  390 

Inspiration— at  first  hand  53,  conserved  by  knowledge 
through  nature  17,  cultivation  of  174,  discovery  of 
natural  disposition  creates  15,  energy  to  act 
created  by  62,  first  understanding  of  57,  in 
natural  forms  253,  manual  training  creates  15, 
performance  ot  deeds  causes  15,  20;  teachers' 
need  of  15 

Intelligence  thro!igh  hand  skill  39,  2S0 

Isometrical  drawing  and  its  use  322 

Jacobi  on  perception  and  memory  1S5 

Joints— complex  forms  named  329,  first  exercises  325, 
illustrations  314,  331 ;  simpler  forms  first  325 

Keene,  Bishop — "  stairway  to  God  "  63 

Kirkbride,  Dr.,  on  adaptability  of  these  methods  to  the 
feeble-minded  and  insane  390 

Knowledge  (see  also  Education) — means  ability  to  use 
iS,  340;  not  tamiliarity  59,  340;  of  environment 
necessary  54 

Leading  lines 9S,  100 

Leaf,  the — complex  forms  loS — no;  combinations  of 
leat  and  scroll  116 — 117;  conventional  forms  fir^t 
91,  curved  leat  how  modeled  242,  directions  for 
carving  20S,  2S4;  directions  lor  drawing  S7,  direc- 
tions  for  modeling  195,  215,237,  242;  drill  work  90, 
forms  modeled  in  clay  112,  115,  208,  215,  237,243; 
idealized  forms  1 13,  illustrations  of  SS,  S9;  series 
of  forms  111—116;  simple  forms  S7 — 93;  three- 
tipped  leaf  and  variations  S9 — 90;  unnecessary 
technical  terms  S9 

Left  hand — see  Ambidextrous  work 

Lettering  and  design  175 

Lite  drawing  {see  also  Drawing,  and  Art  students, 
suggestions  for)-get  new  impressions  from  object 
140,  human    form  studies   409—412;   illustrations 


139,  141,  143,  144,  145,  146,  150,  154;  living  fish 
should  be  studied  144,  149,  150;  memory  of  form 
must  be  fixed  140,  mounted  forms,  use  of  142, 
moving  models,  drawing  from  161.  power  regis- 
tered by  practice  140,  simplicitv,  importance  of 
14S,  suggestions  on  139 

Liie  work,  fitted  for  by  true  manual  training  32 

Light  and  shade(seealso  Color  and  Charcoal  drawing) 
— after  form  177,  learned  by  modeling  177 

Lines,  leading— fundamental  lines  in  patterns  9S, 
sDJral  the  basis  9S,  suggestions  on  use  ot  100 

Lining-in  opposed  76,  77 

Lizard,  directions  for  modeling  203 

Loop,  the  double— application  of  S2,  directions  for 
making  So,  exercises  on  Si — S4;  reason  for  vari- 
ous movements  S2 

Machinery  and  power  misused  in  technical  schools  310 

Machine-shop  methods,  limitations  of  306 

Machine-shop  practice  has  its  place  310 

Magnetic  influence  in  nature  254 

Magnitudes — drill  for  127,  must  be  grasped  mentally 
129 

Mallet — aid  to  chisel  or  gouge  264,  hand  used  as,  illus- 
trated 277,  position  of  illustrated  276,  right  and 
lelt  hand  with  273,  use  of  with  chisel  271,  273 

Manual  training,  the  true  tsee  also  Manual-training 
drawing  and  Hducation  in  art  and  manual  train- 
ing)— adapted  to  all  grades  and  ages  9,  balanced 
human  organism  by  4,  contact  with  real  things 
important  16,  co-ordination  of  hand,  eye,  brain 
30,  basis  of  all  education  22,  benchwork  16,  319; 
capacity  and  energv  through  10,  12,  14;  drawing 
the  first  esstntial  6,9;  drawing  supplement  to  29, 
dull  and  backward  pupils  adapted  to  52,  3S9;  ed- 
ucates to  enjoy  life  even  in  drudgery  310,  elemen- 
tary precedes  special  work  5,  29;  feeble  minded 
and  insane  educated  by  300,  first  experiments  9, 
first  principles  1 — 64;  good-will  of  educators  for 
10,  hand  obedient  to  will  76,  h«nd  skill  makes 
intelligence 39,  inspiration  through  15,  knowledge 
reinforced  by  70,  love  of  nature  from  23,  mind 
and  character  developed  31,  mode  nl  thought  ex- 
pression 30,  muscle  and  mind  in  harinonv  31,  old 
methods  insufficient  41,  old  system  of  carpenter 
work  illustrated  335,  perspective  powers  trained 
24,  40;  province  of  32,  reformatory  institutions 
benefited  by  393,  school  for  not  a  machine  shop 
309,  self-reliance  taught  by  39,  senses  trained  3S, 
smallest  school  can  teach  34,  sloyd,  cooking, 
etc.,  not  included  3S,  thought  and  action  united 
24,  40;  tools  first  needed  4,  tools  required  inex- 
pensive  33,  trade  processes  compared  with  32, 
truant  schools  should*  teach  393 — 394;  true  dis- 
tinguished from  false  3],  wood-working  opera- 
tions 29,  work  of  life  fitted  for 32 

Manual-training  drawing  (see  also  Drawing  and  De. 
signing )— construction  lines  not  allowed  SS, 
contact  with  things  importint  16,  drill  forms  72, 
75— SA;  drill  work  for  fundamental  skill  69,  ele- 
mentary units  S7—100;  freehand  manual  and 
memory  13,  modeling  and  carving  supplements 
to  S6,  nature  study  with  70,  paper  for  73,  plan  of 
exercises  71,  preliminary  considerations  67 — 74 

Manual-training  school  not  a  machine  shop  300 


Index 


425 


Maudsley— education  and  whai  ii  hiiim--is  i>t  ^^n. 
growth  ofidcatiun  57,  ideas  as  iina^i-ri  of  scnsorv 
impressions  ^07,  ner\c  experiences,  registering; 
ot  143,  physical  basis  of  memory  4S,  unconscious 
development  of  visual  sensations  65 

Meanings  of  things  better  than  meanings  of  words  34.S 

Mechanical  draughting,  previous  training  required 
for  305 

Mechanical  drawing— artistic  beauty  of  htnv  lost  3J1, 
class  room  illustrated  304,  course  should  include 
what  330,  diflerent  drawings,  same  principle  ^22, 
draughting  and  when  properly  taught  305,  draw- 
ings for  wcM»d  working  330,  equipment  required 
33(),  Ireehand  perspective  illustrated  3J3,  freehand 
projections  illustrated  315,  individuality  of  pupils 
always  considered  3*2,  instrument  discussion 
begins  course  32J,  isometrical  drawing  and  its  use 
jii,  isometric  drawing  lesson  illustrated  yO, 
machines  should  not  be  too  much  discussed  ^10, 
mechanical  units  1^22,  parallel  and  angular  per- 
spective of  educatii)nal  value  32*1,  ^2} ;  perspective 
and  architectural  design  included  3^0,  practical 
experience  at  machine  shops  desired  \2i,  pupils* 
work  illustrated  333,  real  manual  training  first 
306,  rotation  with  wood-working3i5,  scn-w  princi- 
ple illustrated  3JI,  tracing  and  blueprinting  im- 
portant   3J2,    the     previous      training     required 

305.  i" 

Meissonier  —  ambidexterity  51,  drawing^  a  basis  of 
primary  education  56,  drawing  expresses  all 
things  5^,  language  of  truth  56 

Memory  (see  also  Memory-  drawing) — basis  of  4S,  cor. 
rcct  use  of  3S,  mind  expanded  by  drawing  fr^^ii 
143,  physiological  condition  of  143,  strengthened 
by  draw*ing  39,  visual  20 

Memory  drawing  (see  also  Drawing) — ability  fanned 
to  "think"  pictures  143,  assimilate  impressions 
Ironi  real  things  163.  bird  forms  for  159,  botanical 
forms  ifi^ — i&S;  fish  forms  good  practice  143, 
good  artists  constantly  refresh  memory  1^3,  illus. 
trations  14S.  151,  153,  155,  I5>,  i'«>,  161,  lOi,  1/14; 
not  enough  insisted  on  143,  14*);  jMrrsistence  re- 
quired 14J,  primary  work  hy  little  children  I'io, 
type  forms  must  be  fixed  146 

Mentnl  and  bodily  vigor  by  union  ol  study  and 
••  doing  "341 

Mental   fabric,   building  nf  iS,  31.45,50,57,60,150,344 

Mental  image  vs.  pencil  lines  ti-j,  IJ^S 

Mental  inertia,  resultol  S 

Mental  functions,  development  of  4.S 

Metal,  carved  patterns  for  30 j 

Metal  work— esthetic  idea  usually  lacking  337,  art  in 
3i>4,  denigns  3(>4,  entirety  mechanical  funda- 
mentaN  before  trade  operations  337,  illustration 
394,  plaque  illustrated  3S5,  proper  place  in  trade 
schools  337,  re[M»us»*'  and  hammered  work  ^Kt^, 
working  in  illustrated  3(;5 

Methods  in  manualtra  Jiing  t.»et-aUo  Manual  training) 
— cost  of  equipments  conlraftted  3,^,  (li»tinctinn 
between  true  and  fnNc  14—34  i  ***1»^  mrthod*  con- 
sume energy  and  inspiration  Ju,  methods  ad- 
vocated and  criticined  4,  old  methods  found 
wanting  9.  305  ;  stupid  claims  tor  sinyd  2$ 


Modeling  (sec  also  t  jay  modeling  and  Wax  modeling) 
—aid  to  drawing  Vi,  154;  animal  forms  147- J55; 
before  caning  2^2,  elementary  courses  in  193— 
3oS;  "  leeling  form  "  22$,  f«ir  grammar  grades  itg 
— *»5:  fwrm  taught  by  1S7.  fruit  and  vegetable 
forms  2c^~t2o;  geometric  forms  221—317;  hints 
to  the  teacher  I9r>,  mode  of  expression  iSK,  255; 
plant  required  iSS,  190;  preliminar>'  instructions 
1S7— 192;  props,  use  of  251,  252;  suggestions  on 
1S7— iSS;   wax  modeling  J57— 260 

Modeling  animal  forms— advice  to  teachers  249,  Bar>-e 
casts  lor  school  u8eiS2.  249;  ]lan,e  casts  illus- 
trated  213,  246;  directions  lor  modeling  199 — 204, 
^^7-^55;  K*-'"*''"**'  form  first  249.  individual  Ustc 
of  pupils  consulted  247,  nrodcling  from  birds  250, 
model  for  each  pupil  24S,  model  the  best  teacher 
249,  tool  marks  vs.  smoothness  249,  woik  bv 
grammar  pupils  251,  work  in,  illustrated    1S6.  J47 

Modeling  and  carving  (see  also  .Modeling  and  Carving) 
— ability  inherent  64,  :»ids  to  drawing  S6 

Modeling  lor  grammar  grades— antheniion  241,  cur\ed 
leaf  242,  leaf  tile  illustrated  237,  leaf  units  237, 
Moresque  form  23S,  rosette  234,  scroll  230.  scroll 
and  crocket  239,  scroll  and  leaflets  240,  simple 
shell  forms  243,  suggestions  229 

Modeling,  forms  for — see  Clay  modeling 

Modeling  fruit  and  vegetiihte  forms  209— 220  (sec  also 
Fruit  forms  and  Vegetable  lonn^,  modeling 
from ) 

Molding— acanthus  leaf  294,  J95;  plain  curved  293,  J94; 
tongue  and  dart  Ayi,  20i 

Moorish  unit^— directions  for  drawing  1 19,  directions 
(or  modeling  23S,  Moresque  designs  iiS,  119; 
Moresque  unit  illustrated  23,$ 

Morality  embodied  in  nature  7 

Moral  training  (seeals(»  Night  schools)— activities  and 
indivi.  ual  faculties  the  Kids  to  6,  7  ;  beauty  parlot 
gcH>dne»-s  n<)t  enough  taught  254,  before  intel- 
U'Ciual  I.  character  developed  by  manual  train- 
'■*tf  j<>  ^M>  *-\^'>  divine  i  nergy  a  splendid  aid  254, 
duty  sluiuld  be  a  desire  nut  a  sacrillce  254,  habits 
bel'orc  principles  27S,  knowledge  of  beauty  an 
imp'^rtiint  aid  6,  moraliiy  embodied  in  nature  7. 
prvlereiicc  for  good  how  best  developed  7,  skilled 
hands  develop  2^,  32 

Motor  centers— co-ordination  ol  103,  lack  of  active  use 
frequent  59 

Mouse,  diiectiontt  for  modeling  204 

.Moxoin,   Dr.  rhilip  S.,  on  moral  habits  J7S 

Nascent  (>eri<>d,  best  re»ults  at  29 

Natural  dis|M>siti«in,  common  lack  of  development  in  1  j 

Natural  forms— inspiration  in  253,  schoolrtMiin  use 
of  252 

Nature— ttest  designer  155,  drawing  from    61,    Imiking 

at  thing<t  not  enough   5S,  love  for  cultivated  no, 

manual  training  teache*  love  for  31^  morality  em 

tHidird  in  7.  painting  from  141,  li>uch  of  1^ 

Nature  anil  ituiniiry  drawing  155  — 106  (sec  alsoNature 

drawing  and  Memory  drawing) 
Nature  drav^ing   (sec  also  Drawing) — bird  forms    159, 
UH,  I'tj;  bl-uklniard  work  15S,  botanical  1*4 — u*ji 
general  form  fi  st  aim   162,  object   drawing  lUii^ 
trated  15'%  khell  forms  155— 15S 


426 


Index 


Nature  studv  and  memorv  drawing  155 — 163;  common 
method  criticised  5:^,  60,  61 ;  drawing  as  supple- 
ment to  70,  72 ;  drawing-  used  in  6,  345 ;  example  of 
153,154;  familiarity  not  knowled^^e  50,  organic 
impressions  in  60,  right  methods  5S  -  64 

Nature-study  drawing,  use  of  6 

Night  schools— application  and  plant  required  364 — 
366;  chanicter  and  energy  how  naturally  de- 
veloped 359—364;  encourage  the  pupils  372, 
materials  needed  366 — 36S;  plan  of  exercises  36S, 
principles  and  methods  and  their  practical  work- 
ing359— 364;  pupils  often  injured  by  goody-goody 
people  362,  rewards  or  prizes  374,  377;  scenes  in 
3SS,  361,  365.  367^  37  >.  373.  375 ;  street  arabs  374, 
suggestions  for  controlling  pupils  369,  sugges- 
tions to  teachers  370 — 372  ;  teachers  needed  36S, 
v:ilue  and  use  of  manual-training  methods  359, 
wood    carving    in    375  —  377 ;    work     illustrated 

369,  374 

Normal  schools — necessity  for  these  methods  being 
taught3So,  public  denuindsthe  new  education  3S0, 
teachers  can  easily  prepare  themselves  to  teach 
true  manual  training  3S0 

Nude,  drawing  from  the  426 

Oak — chiseling  around  curve  difficult  271,  cutting  in, 
splendid  discip  ine  271,  experience  with  is  the 
best  teacher  271 

Objects  of  woodwork  instruction  316 

Originality,  ideas  basis  of  30 

Painting — 5".ee  Color  and  brush  work 

Paper  for  drawing  74 

Parents,  a  word  to — can  teach  your  own  children  from 
this  book  39f},  parents  are  enthusiiistic  advocates 
of  these  methods  397,  will  gain  pleasure  and  use 
by  learning  and  teaching  manual-training  397 

Parthenon,  antelix  of  ir4 

Pattern  making  after  geometric  forms  327 

Patterns  in  woodwork  construction  305,  327,  329 

Pear,  directions  for  modeling  212 

Perception — accuracy  of  created  25,  modeling  an  aid  to 
219,  foundation  of  reasoning  and  imagination 
20S,  memorv  associated  with  1S5 

Perspective — architectural  design  included  with  320, 
lesson  illustrated  ^2$,  naturally  acquiretl  174, 
parallel  and  angular  320,  323 

Plaster  models — animal  forms  iSi,  213,  246;  antique 
105,  architectural  models  1S2 — 1S4;  Barye  casts 
for  schoolroom  1S2,  1S6;  borders  227,  capitals  221, 
casts  vs.  nature  iSo,  fruit  forms  iSi,  model  for 
drawing,  modeling  and  carving  187,240;  panels 
222,  shield  220,  teachers  should  make  1S2,  vs. 
clay  models  for  schools  252 

Potato,  directions  for  modeling  217 

l*ottery  forms  illustrated  3S7 

Pratt  institute  methods  54 

Processes  best  lor  all  pursuits  first3i6 

Radical  feature  of  real  manual-training  methods  306 

Raphael's  Cardellino  illustrated  417 

Reformatory  institutions — character  reformed  bv  pleas- 
ing work  393.  cheaper  methods  for  society  393,  ex- 
perience with  art  methods  in  393,  respectable 
liveliliood  may  be  earned  393 

Rembrandt's  elephant  illustrated  and  exjilained  39S 


Repouss^  and  hammered  v  ork  395 

Righteousness,  second-hand  vs.  first  hand  methods  363 
Roof  construction  311,  313 

Rosette,    the— directions    for  carving    2S6,  zSS;    direc- 
tions  fir  modeling  234,  drawing  exercises  on  97— 
9S;    Gothic    form   illustrated  245,  illustrations  of 
car\-ed  torms  2S7,  inodeied  form  234,  modeling  ex- 
ercises on  19S,  models  for  drawing,  modeling  and 
carving  99,  round  and  square  forms  of  illustrated 
2S7,  various  designs  0,  with  leaf  form  no 
Schoolroom    decoration — aquarium     3S5,     borders     of 
simple   pattern   3S5,  charts  give  business  air  3S6, 
designs   and    pictures  386,  flowers   386,  great  art 
works  undesirable  3S5,  natural  forms  3S5,  shelves 
of  interesting  objects  3S5,  simple  art  works  easily 
understood     3S5,    teacher's    personality     in     3S7, 
"works  of  art"  alone  no   education   3SS,    wrong 
methods  may  engender  dislike  for  art  forms  3S5 
School  work  aided  by  drawing — biology  345,  blackboard 
work  34S,    botany  346 — 352;  chart  making  354 — 
357;  chemistry  352,  elementary  chemistry  347,  ele- 
mentary science    346,  entomoloj^y  352,  language 
study  342,  learning  "hard"  words  339,   mineral- 
ogy 352,    natural  history  353,  nature   study  345, 
qualifying     names     344,    technical     terms     343, 
.    zoology  343 
Scroll,  the — combined   with  anthemlon  105 — 107;  com- 
bined with   crocket   239,    conil^ined  with  leaflets 
240,  desi^;;ning  form  to  carve   2S3,  directions   for 
drawing  and  modeling  230,  239 ;  modeled  form  230, 
241;    "modeled  line"    230,    modeling    lesson  on, 
illustrateil  2^^,  three  stages  in  carving  2S4 
Self-reliance  t:iu;jhtby  manual  training  39,  340 
Sense   impressions — assimilation    of  3S,    complexity  of 
brain  cells    from  51,    concrete    ideas    from  19,  co- 
ordination for  individual  harmonv  4S,  cultivation 
of  63,  importance  of  various  16,  organized  59,  re- 
produced through  fingertips  146,  sense  channels 
how  impressed  5^,  systematic  training  of  3S 
Senses — brain  co-ordination  forms  connection  between 
39,    distinct   yet   connected    iS,    mind   developed 
through  207,  practiced    use  of  prevents  accidents 
2J1,  systematic  training  of  38 
Shakespeare  on  learning  from  nature  62 
Shell  forms— blackboard  work  15>,  carvings  of  conven- 
tionalized 2S9,   directions  for  modeling  243,  fiom 
memory  155  — 15S;  from    object  156— 158;  modeled 
form  229,  models  illustrated  158,  244 
Simplicity— characteristic    of     great    artists    149,    im. 

portance  of  147,  one  aim  sought  in  drawing  149 
Sketch  and  note  books  in  woodwork  construction  325 
Sketching  constantly  practiced  by  good  artists  143 
Sketching  vs.  designing  57 

Sloyd  method—busy  work  hut  not  educational  zS,  not 
real   manual   training   28,    original  reason  for  26, 
selected  for  criticism  28,  stupid  claims  for  25 
Smiles,  on  habits  vs.  principles  214 
Snake,  how  to  model  202 

Solids  — cups  and  saucers  12S,  drill   f  »r  magnitudes  127, 
mental     image    vs.    pencil   lines     12S,  principle 
of  Greek  vessel  forms  12S,  vessel  forms  for   prac- 
tice 129 
Spencer— brain  the  register  of  experiences  224,  educa- 


Index 


427 


ted  senses  and  muscles  needed  in  accidents  jr'it, 
mciinin^  of  ihinpr!^  vs.  meaning^  of  words  348 

Sphere,  tiirections  for  modeling;  222 

Spiral,  the — directions  for  cur\in)f  spiral  crockets  285, 
directions  for  drawing  S4— S5;  directions  for 
modeling  194,  drill  forms  So,  frequent  form  in 
art  &|,  modeling:  i^t  units  of  design  based  on  93 

Spoiled  work  vs.  st>oiled  pupil  ^75 

Straight  lines— directions  for  making  79,  exercises  on 
diagonals  79 

Strap  work — exercises  for  accuracy  124— 125  ;  interhic- 
ing  exercises  125 

ptreet  ar.ibs  and  what  can  be  done  with  them  374 

Strength  in  designing,  secret  of  100 

Study  and  "  doing  '*  should  go  together  341 

Summer  schools — these  methods  adapted  to  3S2,  work 
at  illustrated  3S2,  3S3 

Swiss  or  Swedi^h  car\ing  3SS 

Symbolic  fonns— circle  iSo,  cross  iSo,  hieroglyphics 
iSo,  nimbus  iSo,  passion  flower  iSo 

Symbolism— explanatio.i  of  17S,  forms  in  described  iSo 

Tactual  impressions— produce  *'  seeing  |>owcr  '*  iSS, 
value  ol  portraying  147, 160 

Tangential  curvatun- — see  Curvature 

Teacher — great  field  for  400,  inspinition  needed  by  15, 
mission  of  15,  227;  personality  recognized  34, 
true  teacher  draws  out  energy  145.  150,  1^4;  vs 
imitators  and  copyists  45 

Teachers,  gn-at  field  for  400 

Technical  terms  learned  by  dr.iwing  their   nieaning  343 

Thing!?  vs.  symbols  ify — 2^ 

Thought— drawing  as  mode  of  expression  i9,'40, 45,  56, 
64,  117,  14^,  33g;  mo*leling  as  mode  of  expres. 
sion  iSS,  355;  ripened  by  action  into  truth  1S5, 
thought  should  be  put  into  work  instead  of  into 
tools  317,  valueless  unless  executed  i^S 

Thought  and  action  united  by  true  manual  training 
24,  40 

Though*  fabric— sec  Mental  fabric 

Thought  studies,  first  step  to  higher  54 

Tools — calipers  2S<>,  2f)2,  293,  294,  295;  car^•ing  set 
illustrated  2^15.  chisel  2<)3,  271,  272,  273,274,292, 
*>(,  2<>5;  clamps  203,  clamps  and  mallet  illus- 
traled  2')4,  fewer  tools,  belter  workmen  2*13,  M^  ; 
first  ones  needed  4,  gouge  263,  271.  27 J,  273,  J93I 
mallet  y»3,  271,  273;  marks  of  on  \*enu8  of  Milo 
264,  n.itural  vs.  artificial  4,  2S0;  not  end  but 
means  317,  parting  tool  2i>3,  ruler  132,  2S(S;  sharp, 
ening  328,  simplicity  of  in  Greek  art  y^,  posi- 
tion  in  mmleling  illustrated  233.  ^35:  l^o^ilio^  of 
mmle'.ing  timl  described  23'".  sculptors'  best  243, 
Bet  of  carving,  illustrated  2/^5,  use  of  in  elementary 
modehng  210,  212;  uf»e  «»!  in  grammar  grade 
modeling  230—245;  wood.working  to*«U  required 
for  20  pupils  334,  work  with  should  become  Auto- 
matic 317 

Tool  work  not  the  end  but  the  means  317 

Tomato,  direction."*  fnr  modeling  21S 

Tongue— drawing  the  universal  33,   146;  v«.  skilled  J3 

Tongue  and  dart  molding  Ji;2,  293 

Touch  -  ma*tcr  sens'e  iSS,  mind  and  jud(fment  trained 
by  iSS,  sculptor's  power  in  iSS 

Trade  (see  also  Manual  training,  the  true)— hand  skill 
precedes  trade  learnmg  29,  ^2;  hand  of  shown  in 


common  art  nietho<1s  41,  mercantile  ideas  over- 
done S,  13;  old- fashioned  ideas  unavailable  13, 
trade  processes  vs.  manual  training  32.  jSo;  trade 
school's  nal  use  ^2,  true  handicraft  trams  eye, 
hand,  brain  30,  teaching  of  not  beneficial  7, 
weakness  of  old  method  in  teaching  32 

Trade  processes  vs.  real  manual  training  32 

Trade  school's  real  use  ^2 

Tniant  schools,  etc— art  methods  always  liked  393,  en- 
thusiasm  awakened  304,  even  **  vicious"  boys  like 
work  39(,  forcing  methods  a  failure  393.  good 
word  for  pupils  in  394,  rvbellion  and  hate  vs.  en- 
thusiasm  393 

Truth,  the  language  of  5(1 

Utility-  alone  does  not  educate 54,  clothed  with  beauty 
33,  idea  of  overdone  26,41  ;  insuffiricnt  alone  1 

Vacation  and  night  schiKils,  authority  on  379 

Vacation  schools— false  vs.  riirht  methods  3S0,  Mr.  \V. 
W.  Fra/ier,  authority  on  379,  too  much  experi- 
menting with  3S\  valuable  results  obtained  379 

Vaulting  principle  illustrated  ^21 

\'cgetable  forms,  modeling  from— carrot  21S,  potato  J17 
ri-marks  on  21*^,  tomato  21S,  turnip  219 

Venus  of  Milo,  tool  marks  on  2*14 

Vessel  shapes  ijo 

Visual  image— best  workmen  have  20,  designer  has 
137,  necessary  in  designing  20,  pleasure  of  use 
21,  unconscious  development  of  65,  universal 
need  of 21 

Vitality  consumed  by  mere  Ixwik  learning  17 

A'ital   force  how  aciiuired  57 

\'olunl;irv  action,    Wundt  on  S| 

Water-color  painting  from  casts — best  position  for 
model  4ns,  materials  40S,  painting  Angelo's  Dy- 
ing Slave  40S 

Wax— cleaned  by  melting  259,  colors  of  25S,  compared 
with  clay  for  modeling  257,  eokt  and  care  of 
257,  25S;  good  substitutes  lor  J57 

Wax  modeling— designs  25'>,  257,  25S,  259;  dirccttont 
for  making  casts  ot  wa\  models  259,  dntwing 
and  lining  in  for  257,  enlarging  animal  forms 
*»,  rouKhtcxture  wi>od  best  for  2$^ 

Women  antl  girls,   hand  training  adapted  to  31,  264 

Wood — hard  vs.  soft  in  car%-lng  265—26^;  practical  use 
of  hard  2«W,  texture  learned  byexperience  271,  275 

Wood  carving — age  for  teaming  jbf,  avoid  too  deep 
cutting  273,  background  first  n-movt-d  273,  best 
work  from  the  sLirt  2  14,  21*$  ;  beveling  outer  edge 
of  design  274,  borders  2i>2—2v5:  carved  p.ittcrns 
for  metal  w<jrk  3«j,  305;  ca^ve^'^  grip  neicsnary 
jSo,  carving  on  a  curbed  surface  2^1—296,  300— 
301 ;  carving  on  furniturr  and  tither  advanced 
work  2>>i— 302;  car\-ing  the  elementar)*  units  ot 
design  JS3— 390;  chairs  21^7,  continuous  clean  cut 
273,  (.'upid's  head  in  four  stages  2ui),  yxt;  cutllnip 
around  curve  273,  274;  design,  carving  elementary 
unit!*   iif  2'*3— Jfin;    ■!  '  mi    for  earning 

2f'f>;  disiipline  and  t-  >   of  27S,  cduca- 

tiimal  value   ri(    .■  1 1  encourage  the 

pupil  275,  em  (''«tered  by  j^ro, 

equipment,  mi  ing  the  form  In 

WOtnl  27  t.  fintohrd   wurk    1mm\     u^ed  277,  fininhing 

the  earning  2S »,  fir»l  »tep»  in  Jftft,  271— *Si; 
frames  J96,  free  curves  needi-d  in  dcklgnlng  S7J, 


428 


Index 


furniture  .ind  other  ndvanced  work  291 — 301; 
gouging;  channel  around  desig^n  271,  graded  work 
in  26S,  grooves  slight  at  first  272,  hard  vs.  soft 
wood  265,  hard  wood  preferred  265,  illustrafions 
of  examples  of  2,  5,  65,  15S,  1S5,  261,  263,  26S— 271, 
2S1,  2S2,  2S.5,  390,  291,  297,  29S,  299;  instructions 
for  elementary  work  271— 2S1 ;  knowledge  of  form 
required  263,  line  of  drawing  not  considered  by 
expert  carvers  273,  muscular  exercise  for  torpid 
muscles  279,  panel  illustrated  317,  3S9;  position 
of  hands  267,  practical  use  of  hard  wood  266, 
raised  surface  how  carved  273,  scooping  out  inside 
curve  273,  scored  background  illustrated  26S, 
scoring  the  background  2OS.  should  be  taught 
with  clav  modeling  317,  should  precede  cabinet 
making  317,  spoiled  panel  vs.  spoiled  boy  275, 
spoiled  work  made  good  292,  stupid  pupils  make 
skilled  workmen  275,  Swiss  or  Swedish  carving 
3SS,  teaching  of  not  common  enough  299,  texture 
of  wood  learned  by  experience  271,  275;  tools  re- 
quired 263,  264,  265,  273;  tracing  is  cheating  26S, 
transfer  instruments  not  used  266,  267 ;  wood  work 
distinct  from  317,  working  in,  illustrated  19,  262, 
272,  274,  276,  277,  279,  291 ;  wood  to  practice  in  265 
Woodwork  construction — abstruse  ideas  should  be- 
come familiar  316.  advanced  construction  32S,  ap- 
paratus for  school  purposes  illustrated  320,  archi- 
tecture 323,  architectural  column  illustrated  314, 
art  and  mechanical  sides  both  taught  325,  art 
work  before  mechanical  work  317,  bench  work 
should  correlate  with  oiher  studies  319,  black- 
board work  made  much  of  324,  building  construc- 
tions illustrated  309,  in.  313;  carpenter  work, 
where  it  should  be  taught  305,  comprehensive 
rather  than  detailed  training  316,  difference  be- 
tween the  important   and  the  trivial  must  be  dis- 


cerned 317,  door  model  317,  drawings  for  wood 
working  330,  duplicate  parts  may  be  turned  work 
329,  education  in  requires  no  machinerv  310,  312; 
equipment  inexpensive  313,  fallacy  of  ordinary 
methods  305.  geometric  models  326,  327;  good 
teacher  better  than  good  tools  31S,  individ- 
uality of  pupils  recognized  329,  joints  for  first  ex- 
ercises 325,  joints  illustrated  314,  331  ;  machine- 
shop  practice  has  its  place  310,  manual-training 
school  not  a  machine  shop  300,  mechanical  side 
how  best  taught  325,  misuse  of  power  and  ma- 
chinerv in  technical  schools  310,  note  and  sketch 
books  required  325,  objects  of  instruction  316,  oat- 
terns  for  advanced  work   329,  patterns  illustrated 

305,  pattern  making  after  geometric  form 
327,  perspective  lesson  illustrated  32S,  pre- 
liminary training  required  305,  present  vs.  old- 
time  craftsmanship  307,  processes  the  best  lor  all 
pursuits  first  316,  radical  feature  ot  this   method 

306,  real  manual  training  first  306,  root  construc- 
tion 311,  313;  sawing  lesson  illustrated 306,  simple 
exercises  for  beginners  325,  skilled  mechanic 
alone  not  best  teacher  31S,  teacher's  best  qualifi- 
cations 325,  thought  should  be  put  into  work,  not 
into  tools  317,  tools  required  for  woodworking  de- 
partment 334,  tools  not  end  but  means  317,100! 
workshould  become  automatic  317,  typical  forms 
most  important  at  first  325,  use  of  head  work  in 
315,  vaultingprinciple  illustrated  324,  wood  carv- 
ing distinct  from  317,  wood  working  course  and 
what  it  includes  ;^;^2y  wood  working  illustrated 
306,  307,  308,312,310,  ^6^;  wood-working  samples 
illustrated  305,309,  311.  313,  314.317,  320,  ^26,  327, 
329;  wood-working  tools  for  20  pupils  334 

Wood-working  course  and  what  it  includes  332 
Writing,  compared  with  drawing  76,  146 


THE  PUBLISHERS'  WORD 

This  book  has  been  primarily  a  labor  of  love  with  the  American  publishers.  It  describes  metliods  that  have 
been  successfully  applied  with  many  thousands  of  pupils  and  teachers  in  public,  parochial  and  private  schools,  art 
classes,  reformatory  institutions,  etc.  At  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  Mr.  Tadd's  working  display  of  his 
methods  was  awarded  the  only  medal  '*  for  excellence  and  unique  method  of  teaching  dr.awing  and  its  application  to 
clay  and  wood."  The  judges  were  Russian  experts  in  industrial  education  .and  manual  training.  It  is  further  sig- 
nificant of  true  merit,  that  a  diflercnt  set  of  judges  should  have  awarded  another  gold  meda!  to  this  work  as  exhibited 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  high  school  of  Philadelphia  in  another  and  distant  department  of  the  exposition.  The  report 
of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1S94  Says  "  the  exhibit  ol  this  school  was  a  surprise,"  and  de- 
votes more  space  to  it  than  to  all  the  Philadelphia  art  schools  and  colleges  combined. 

This  school  also  received  the  lion's  share  of  space  and  commendation  in  the  voluminous  report  to  the  Swiss 
government  by  its  accredited  delegate,  Mr.  Leon  Genoud,  director  of  the  Museum  of  Industry  and  the  Pedagogium, 
Fribourg.  Mr.  Tadd  was  invited  to  explain  his  methods  to  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in 
1S95,  and  an  institution  for  teaching  these  methods  has  since  been  successfully  inaugurated  at  Liverpool,  while  it  is 
rapidly  spreading  througlioutthe  United  States.  In  consequence  of  these  and  other  indorsements,  much  inquiry  for 
"the  natural  education"  has  come  from  leading  educational  bodies,  not  only  in  the  United  States,  but  in  Norway 
Sweden,  .Switzerland,  Belgium,  France,  Germany,  the  United  Kingdom  and  Australia.  The  present  work  is  partly  to 
satisfy  these  and  similar  inquiries. 

The  American  publishers  offer  their  services  to  families,  institutions,  superintendents  or  teachers  who  may  wish 
to  adopt  Mr.  Tadd's  methods  in  whole  or  in  part.  Correspondence  is  invited  regarding  competent  instructors  in  art, 
real  manual  training  and  nature  study,  concerning  opportunities  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  this  method,  or  about 
the  simple  and  inexpensive  equipment  and  supplies  required  for  these  natural  methods  in  the  new  education.  We 
will  cheerfully  co-operate  to  any  reasonable  extent  in  promoting  the  universal  use  of  these  new  methods  in  education 
thatare  so  full  of  j>romise  for  the  youth  of  the  world. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Full  Page  Plates 


Frontispiece  li 

1  Ciuirccial  ilrawings  from  ca-sts  vi 

2  Cliililn-ii's  work,  graiiiiiiar  grade,  Pliiladelphia  piililic  schools  2 

3  Work  in  day  iiiiiil.'ling,  I'ulilic  ScIhxiI  of  Imlustrial  Art  2" 

4  Bhioktioaril  work  in  a  night  sclioul  37 

5  Unfinished  charcoal  sketch,  showing  how  artists  draw  xii 

6  Drawing  and  painting  birds  from  life  40 

7  Corrt'lation  of  drawing  with  elementary  natnral  science — entomology        5.3 

8  Ambidextrous  designing  <"' 

9  Drawing  and  painting  class.  Public  .School  of  Industrial  Art  02 

10  Painting  in  color  form  butterflies  1  1 1 
H  Drawing  dog  form  life  l-'l 

12  Bird  form  nuxlels  for  children  to  work  from  170 

13  Girl  mo<l"'Iing  a  lion  l**" 

11  1H((  small  forms  modeled  in  clay  1>*0 
15  Some  of  the  Barye  cists  -!•' 
10  A  collection  of  pupils'  work,  Public  School  of  Imlustrial  Art  L'2S 

17  Forms  suitable  for  elementary  schools  231 

18  Various  ))ositions  of  tool  in  modeling  rosette  and  shell  23.') 

19  Modeling  a  lion  24(1 

20  Original  designs  modeled  in  wax  2."i0 

21  Wooil-carving  room.  Public  School  of  Imlustrial  Art  2'i2 

22  Exaiiii>les  of  wood  carving  -'" 

23  Vestm.nt  casi-  of  U  C  high  .school  pupils  282 

24  Mechanical  ilrawing  i*"* 

25  Part  of  wood-working  room  •""* 
20  Illustrating  roof  construction  ''^l 

27  Simple  and  complex  geometric  models  '^-'tl 

28  Drawings  for  wood  working  ■'•'^' 

29  Mechanical  drawings  by  pupils  ^l-'-^ 
80  Caqienter  work— the  old  system  of  manual  training  :»='•'. 

31  Botany— application  of  ilrawing  to  elementary  science  work  33.S 

32  Elementary  chemistry  and  drawing 

33  Drawing  birds  from  nature 

(4=9) 


317 
351 


430 


List  of  Illustrations 


34  St.  James  Boys'  Guild,  nigjit  school  class 

35  Boys  carving  funiiture  in  night  school 

36  Summer  class  in  Adirondacks  at  work 

37  Elementary  mineralogy  with  drawing 

38  Rembrandt's  study  of  an  elephant 

39  Modeling  and  drawing  from  life 

40  Angelo's  Sj'bil 

41  Drawing  pigs,  Adirondacks 

42  Sketching  from  cattle,  summer  school 


353 
371 
378 
384 
398 
401 
404 
414 
416 


Principal  Pictures,  Arranged  by  Subjects 


DRAWING 


Pupil  working^  on  orig^inal  blackboard  design  lo, 

15.35.46.  134 
Enlarging  sketchbook  drawings  11,  162 
Freehand    manual   and   memory   work   by   little 

children  13 
Blackboard  work  in  a  night  school  37 
Teachers  practicing  freehand  circle  41 
Little  child  drawing  circles  47 
Class  drawing  and  painting  birds  from  life  49 
Freehand  designing,  Germantown  public  school 

SI 
Correlation  of  drawing  with    elementary  natural 

sciences — entomology  55 
Bov  making  freehand  chart  5S 
Drawing  poultry  from  nature6i,  139 
Original  designs  by  grammar-grade  children  65 
Ambidextrous  blackboard  designing  by  class  of 

boys  66 
Some  primary  exercises  67,  6S,  73 
Grammar  grade  practice  69 

Ambidextrous  co-ordinations  in  four  directions  70 
Grammar  grade  pupils  making  original  designs 

7' 
First  exercises,  primary  school,  colored  children 

7^ 
Loop  forms  for  drill  work  75,  Si,  S2,  84 
Freehand  exercises  in  straight  lines  76 
Circle  form  for  drill  work  7S 
Straight-line  form  for  drill  work  79 
Children  making  drill  movements  and  spirals  So 
Making  loop  forms    with   both    hands,    primary 

children  S3 
Spiral  forms  for  drill  work  S4,  S5,  S6 
Drawing  bird  forms  irom  memory  S7 
Leaf  forms  for  drill  work  SS,  S9,  loS,  109 

110,  112,  113,  IJ4 
practicing  leaf  forms  and  loops  90 
Drawing  and  painting  class,  Public  School   of 

Industrial  Art  92 
Units  of  designs  based  on  the  spiral  93 


Crocket  forms  for  drill  work  94 

Units  ot  design  based  on  spiral  and  crocket  95 

Pupil  practicing  scroll  and  crockets  95 

Rosettes  of  various  designs  96 

Combinations  of  units  for  drill  work  97 

Blackboard  exercises— drawing  rosettes  9S 

Rosette  models  99 

Practice  work  for  leading  lines  99,  100 

Teachers  practicing  drill  forms  loi 

Anthemion  forms  for  drill  work  102,  104,  106,  107 

Co-ordination  of  motor  centers  illustrated  103 

Practicing  the  anthemion  and  scroll  107 

Bud  forms  tor  drill  in 

Combinations  of  leaf  and  scroll  116,  117 

Moresque  designs  i  iS,  1 19 

Colored  pupils  making  blackboard  designs  131 

Combinations  of  circle  for  practice  work  122 

Exercise  m  drawing  borders  123 

Pupil  making  strap  work  124 
Ellipse  forms  for  practice  126 

Memorizing  magnitudes  and  making   solids    137 

Making  vessel  forms  129 

Drill  forms  and  designs  130 

Design  tor  stained  glass  window  131 

Designs  by  public  school  children  131 

Freehand  brush  play  133 

Class  of  teachers,  designing  on  blackboard  136 

Freehand  design  with  griffins  13S 

Painting  in  color  from  nature  141 

Common  mackerel  143 

The  carangoid  fish  144 

Angel  fish  144 

Sheepshead  145 

The  silver  moonfish  146 

Children  drawing  fish  forms  from   memory  14S, 

The  sea  bass  150 
Fish  lorms  in  design  152 
Nature  study  offish  form  153 
Shells  drawn  from  memory  it;^ 


List  of  Illustrations 


43  J 


Drawiag  from  the  object   and   memory   drawing 

.56 

Lesson  from  the  shells  157,  15S 

Children  dmwing  animnU  from  mcraon'  160 

Mi-inory  drjwinjjs  of  birds  loi 

Hird's  winjf  and  feather  16^ 

D^tsy  drawing  lesson  105 

Workinjf  from  Imit  and  branch  i«S 

The  dandt-lion  in  its  different  stafures  167 

Botanical  drawing  of  leaves  107 

Swans  16S 

Dolphin  forms  in  conventional  design  169,  170 

Idealized  animal  forms  171 

Decorative  birds  173 

Exercises  in  lettering  and  design  175 

Drawing  from  objects  in  various  positions  176 

Freehand  drawing  of  chairs  177 

Bird  forms  for  models  179 

Architectuntl  forms  trom  mcmorj'  1S3 

Application  o(  drawing  to  botany  33S 

Learning  hard  words  by  illustrating  their  mean- 

Learning  tacts  by  drawing  them  341 
Architectural  style>  and  how  learned  342 
Drawing  correlated  with  zoology  343 


Biology  and  drawing  345 

Elementary  chemistry  347 

Memorj-  drawing  of  elementir\'  botany  349 

Birds  trnm  nature  351 

Correlation  with  natural  historj-  353 

Paiiitini;  charts  355 

Instrumental  and  cast  drawing,  night  school  373 

Summer  class  m  Adirondacks  37S 

Elementary-  mineralogy  3S4 

Nature  study  3yi 

Rembrandt's  elephant  398 

landscape  painting  and  drawing  403 

Angclo's  Sybil  404 

Charcoal  sketching  Irom  life  405 

Painting  in  water  color  from  cast  403 

Sketching  human  model  from  life  409 

Drawing  the  horse  413 

Lesson  from  the  pig  414 

Cattle  sketching  416 

Raphael's  Madonna  del  Cardellino  417 

Small  decorative  pieces  — Panel  1,  34,  74,  361,  sSl, 
303;  Animal  forms  4,  j6;  Bird  tonus  5,8, 
2».  30,  40,  45,  54,  60;  Fish  6,  3J,  43;  Rosette 
23;  l-^af  forms  57,  6j;  Spoon  shapes  59; 
Feather  63,  Shells  64 


MODELING 


Work  inclav  modeling.  Public  School  ol   Indus- 
trial Art  27 
Girl  modeling  fruit  forms  from  nature  53 
Models  of  leaf  lorms  65,  109,  112,  115,  xS 
Rosette  fi>rms  i/y 

Phister  models  from  the  antique  105 
Leaf  forms  in  design   115 
Bird  forms  as  models  179 
Fruit  forms  iSi 
Animal  forms  in  plaster  iSi 
Plaster  casts  of  architectural  styles  1S4 
Fish  lorms  1S5 

Pupil  modeling  animal  forms  1S6 
Plaster  models  for  drawing,  modeling  and  car\'« 

ing   i>»7,  240 
Sraall  forms  suitable  for  children  1S9 
Making  geometric  and  bird  fonns  191 
First  exercises  in  modeling  191,  197,  198 
Portion    of    modeling    room,    Public    School  of 

Industrial  Art  it^i 
Making  a  ball  ol  clay  193 
Forming  the  spiral  194 

Leaf  forms  — exenise  for  manipulation  ofclay  195 
Molding  a  circular  form  u/j 
Elementary  forms  in  rlay  200 
Modeling  the  snake  kjj 
Modeling  various  natural  objeclA  J03 
Elcment.in,"  miMlelmK  of  animal  forms  J04 
A  modeled  tile  J06 

The  real  bird  and  its  clay  model  307,  250 
Class  working  on  a  cur\ed  surface  109 
FniU  and  vegeU'dc  casts  211 
Some  of  the  liarye  ca*U  213 
Casts  of  leaf  forms  215 
Making  fruit  fonns  from  nature  217 


Branch  and  fruit  39 
Plaster  model  of  sliield  220 
Models  of  plaster  <  apitals  221 
Pilaster  panels,  Italian  renascence  323 
Reducing  acanthus  leaf  forms  323 
Modeling  a  head  225 
Various  borders  227 

Collection  ol  pupils' work.  Public  School  of  In- 
dustrial Art  22S 
Shell  lorm  to  work  from  329 
The  scndl  in  clay  230 

Forms  suitiible  for  elementary  schools  331 
Po>ition  for  tool  while  turning  a  scroll  333 
Complex  iosette234 

pi>sition  of  tool  in  modeling  rosclte  and  shell  335 
A  leaf  tile  337 
The  Moresque  unit  23S 
Scroll  and  cmcket  239 
Scroll  and  leaHet  341 
Anthemion  in  clay  341 
X'ariouK  arrangements  ofanthcmloD  243 
The  curved  leaf  243 
Real  shelU  for  mmlels  344 
(iolhic  mseltes  345 
MfHleling  a  lion  24(1 
Class  in  advanced  clay  work  347 
Casts  of  antinal  fornix  34S 
Animal  lormR,  grammar  grade  work  151 
Making  fish  form<t  i^i 
(iriltin.  original  de<«ign  25$ 
Original  drftigns  in  wax  256 
pupil  miHlfling  in  wax  257 
Original  wax  panel  i^S 
Making  a  dolphin  in  wax  359 
Enlarging  animal  forms  in  wax  360 


432 


List  of  Illustrations 


Night  school  at  work  55S,  361,365,  367,375 
Children  modeling  vase  forms  3S3 
^lodeling  the  dog  from  life  3S3 
Underglaze  pottery  forms  3S5,  3S7 
Pottery  furms  by  the  insane 591 


Molding  a  vase  599 
Modeling  and  drawing  from  life  401 
Modeling  head  from  life  410 
Making  the  human  figure  411,  412 


CARVING 


Children's  work,  grammar  grade,    Philadelphia 

public  schools  3 
Clock,  designed,  drawn    and    canred    by  high 

school  boys  3 
Wood-carving  class.  Public  School  of  Industrial 

Art  19 
Chair  24,  300 
Roscite  models  99 

"Wood  carving  by  school  boy  1S5,  365,  369,  2S3 
Class  at  work.  Public  Schfx>l  of  Industrial  Art 

262 
Clamps  and  niallet  for  wfMxl  carving  264 
Setof  carving  tools  365 
Positions  of   hands  and  tools  in  carving  367,  272, 

274.  ^A  ^7.  ^9 
Background  marked  over  for  cutting  out  a6S 
Examples  of  wood  carving  270 
Chest  carved  by  pupils  27; 
Vestment  case,  pupils^  work  2S2 
Scroll  and  leaf  forms,  three  stages  2S4 
Spiral  with  crocket,  three  steps  2S5 
Anthem  ion  and  rosettes  2S7 


Fluted  forms  2SS 
Conventionalized  shell  forms  2S9 
Carving  on  a  cur\-ed  surface  291 
Borders  and  moldings  392,  293,  394,  395 
Piece  for  chair  back  296 
Frames  by  night  school  pupils  396 
Chairs  by  public  school  pupils  297 
Italian  renascence  car\"inga9S 
Cupid's  head,  in  four  stages  209 
Arms  for  settee  and  chair  ^i 
Carved  patterns  for  metal  302,  3cg 
Xight  school  class  361,  371 
Some  night  school  work  369 
Panel  by  night  school  pupil  374 
Chairs  by  normal  class  376 
Desk  panel,  two  stages  3S1 
Swiss  or  Swedish  carv  ing  3SS 
Car\'cd  panel  by  teacher  5S9 
Art  metal  work  391,  395 
Carving  in  the  round  396 
Stand,  normal  class  work  397 


WOODW^ORKING  AND  MECHANICAL  DRAWING 


Boy  at  bench  work  16 

Class  in  mechanical  drawing  304 

A  lesson  in  sawing  306 

Making  joints  3C7 

Part  of  wood-working  room  yS 

Building  construction  3C9 

Illustrating  roof  construction  31 1 

Cutting  dovetail  and  sharpening  chisel  313 

Queen  post  roof  truss  313 

Forms  of  joints  314,  331 

Pupil  drawing  projections  freehand  315 

Isometric  drawing  lesson  316 

Model  of  door  317 

House  building — lesson  on  stairs  31S 


Applying  trv  squaie  to  planed  surlace  319 

Apparatus  for  school  purposes  330 

Demonstrating  principle  ot  screw  321 

Drawing  freehand  perspective  323 

Construction  demonstrating  "vaulting**  324 

Simple  and  complex  geometric  models  336 

Geometric  forms,  made  without  lathes  327 

Lesson  in  perspective  32S 

Forms  and  patterns,  pupils*  work  329 

Drawings  for  wood  working  330 

Mechanical      drawings,      applying       principle: 

learned  333 
Carpenter  work,  old  system  335 
Paintino-  ch:irt  r.f  mechanical  forms  357 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  ART  STUDENTS 


High  school  wood-working  department  303 

Charcoal  drawings  from  casts  6 

Unfinished  charcoal  sketch  from  the  nude  12 

Rembrandt's  study  of  an  elephant  39S 

Modeling  and  drawing  from  lite  401 

L.andscape  painting  and  dran'ing  in  the  Adiron- 

dacks  403 
Angelo's  Sj-bi) — frrsco  froAiSistine  chapel  404 
First  stage  of  chaicoai  sketch  from  life  405 


Dr-iwing  from  the  nude  405 
Painting  Angclo's  Dying  Slave  from  cast  40S 
Sketching  from  life— model  in  costume  409 
Modeling  a  head  from  life  410 
Modeling  the  n^ure — first  view  41 1 
Modeling  the  figure — second  view  412 
Raphael's    study  lor  the  Madoxma  del  Cardel- 
lino  417 


i 


4 


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